Comment on the effect of anisotropy on the onset of convection in a porous medium

The effect of anisotropy on the onset of convection in a saturated porous medium is discussed. In particular, the case of time-dependent density-driven convection is examined. The applicability of the value of an equivalent Rayleigh number as the criterion for the onset of convection is discussed.     

Moveout approximation for vertical seismic profile geometry in a 2D model with anisotropic layers

I introduce a new explicit form of vertical seismic profile (VSP) traveltime approximation for a 2D model with non‐horizontal boundaries and anisotropic layers. The goal of the new approximation is to dramatically decrease the cost of time calculations by reducing the number of calculated rays in a complex multi‐layered anisotropic model for VSP walkaway data with many sources. This traveltime approximation extends the generalized moveout approximation proposed by Fomel and Stovas. The new equation is designed for borehole seismic geometry where the receivers are placed in a well while the sources are on the surface. For this, the time‐offset function is presented as a sum of odd and even functions. Coefficients in this approximation are determined by calculating the traveltime and its first‐ and second‐order derivatives at five specific rays. Once these coefficients are determined, the traveltimes at other rays are calculated by this approximation. Testing this new approximation on a 2D anisotropic model with dipping boundaries shows its very high accuracy for offsets three times the reflector depths. The new approximation can be used for 2D anisotropic models with tilted symmetry axes for practical VSP geometry calculations. The new explicit approximation eliminates the need of massive ray tracing in a complicated velocity model for multi‐source VSP surveys. This method is designed not for NMO correction but for replacing conventional ray tracing for time calculations.     

Estimation of geological dip and curvature from time‐migrated zero‐offset reflections in heterogeneous anisotropic media

Starting from a given time‐migrated zero‐offset data volume and time‐migration velocity, recent literature has shown that it is possible to simultaneously trace image rays in depth and reconstruct the depth‐velocity model along them. This, in turn, allows image‐ray migration, namely to map time‐migrated reflections into depth by tracing the image ray until half of the reflection time is consumed. As known since the 1980s, image‐ray migration can be made more complete if, besides reflection time, also estimates of its first and second derivatives with respect to the time‐migration datum coordinates are available. Such information provides, in addition to the location and dip of the reflectors in depth, also an estimation of their curvature. The expressions explicitly relate geological dip and curvature to first and second derivatives of reflection time with respect to time‐migration datum coordinates. Such quantitative relationships can provide useful constraints for improved construction of reflectors at depth in the presence of uncertainty. Furthermore, the results of image‐ray migration can be used to verify and improve time‐migration algorithms and can therefore be considered complementary to those of normal‐ray migration. So far, image‐ray migration algorithms have been restricted to layered models with isotropic smooth velocities within the layers. Using the methodology of surface‐to‐surface paraxial matrices, we obtain a natural extension to smooth or layered anisotropic media.     

Range imaging: a new method for high‐resolution topographic measurements in small‐ and medium‐scale field sites

Topographic measurements are essential for the study of earth surface processes. Three‐dimensional data have been conventionally obtained through terrestrial laser scanning or photogrammetric methods. However, particularly in steep and rough terrain, high‐resolution field measurements remain challenging and often require new creative approaches. In this paper, range imaging is evaluated as an alternative method for obtaining surface data in such complex environments. Range imaging is an emerging time‐of‐flight technology, using phase shift measurements on a multi‐pixel sensor to generate a distance image of a surface. Its suitability for field measurements has yet not been tested. We found ambient light and surface reflectivity to be the main factors affecting error in distance measurements. Low‐reflectivity surfaces and strong illumination contrasts under direct exposure to sunlight lead to noisy distance measurements. However, regardless of lighting conditions, the accuracy of range imaging was markedly improved by averaging multiple images of the same scene. For medium ambient lighting (shade) and a light‐coloured surface the measurement uncertainty was approximately 9 mm. To further test the suitability of range imaging for field applications we measured a reach of a steep mountain stream with a horizontal resolution of approximately 1 cm (in the focal plane of the camera), allowing for the interpolation of a digital elevation model on a 2 cm grid. Comparison with an elevation model obtained from terrestrial laser scanning for the same site revealed that both models show similar degrees of topographic detail. Despite limitations in measurement range and accuracy, particularly at bright ambient lighting, range imaging offers three‐dimensional data in real time and video mode without the need of post‐processing. Therefore, range imaging is a useful complement or alternative to existing methods for high‐resolution measurements in small‐ to medium‐scale field sites. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics with nonlinear Moving-Least-Squares WENO reconstruction to model anisotropic dispersion in porous media

Most numerical schemes applied to solve the advection–diffusion equation are affected by numerical diffusion. Moreover, unphysical results, such as oscillations and negative concentrations, may emerge when an anisotropic dispersion tensor is used, which induces even more severe errors in the solution of multispecies reactive transport. To cope with this long standing problem we propose a modified version of the standard Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method based on a Moving-Least-Squares-Weighted-Essentially-Non-Oscillatory (MLS-WENO) reconstruction of concentrations. This scheme formulation (called MWSPH) approximates the diffusive fluxes with a Rusanov-type Riemann solver based on high order WENO scheme. We compare the standard SPH with the MWSPH for different a few test cases, considering both homogeneous and heterogeneous flow fields and different anisotropic ratios of the dispersion tensor. We show that, MWSPH is stable and accurate and that it reduces the occurrence of negative concentrations compared to standard SPH. When negative concentrations are observed, their absolute values are several orders of magnitude smaller compared to standard SPH. In addition, MWSPH limits spurious oscillations in the numerical solution more effectively than classical SPH. Convergence analysis shows that MWSPH is computationally more demanding than SPH, but with the payoff a more accurate solution, which in addition is less sensitive to particles position. The latter property simplifies the time consuming and often user dependent procedure to define the initial dislocation of the particles.     

Effect of stress interactions on anisotropic P-SV-wave dispersion and attenuation for closely spaced cracks in saturated porous media

Generally, local stress induced by individual crack hardly disturbs their neighbours for small crack densities, which, however, could not be neglected as the crack density increases. The disturbance becomes rather complex in saturated porous rocks due to the wave-induced diffusion of fluid pressures. The problem is addressed in this study by the comparison of two solutions: the analytical solution without stress interactions and the numerical method with stress interactions. The resultant difference of effective properties can be used to estimate the effect of stress interactions quantitatively. Numerical experiments demonstrate that the spatial distribution pattern of cracks strongly affects stress interactions. For regularly distributed cracks, the resulting stress interaction (shielding or amplification) shows strong anisotropy, depending on the arrangement and density of cracks. It has an important role in the estimation of effective anisotropic parameters as well as the incident-angle-dependency of P- and SV-wave velocities. Contrarily, randomly distributed cracks with a relative small crack density generally lead to a strong cancellation of stress interactions across cracks, where both the numerical and analytical solutions show a good agreement for the estimation of effective parameters. However, for a higher crack density, the incomplete cancellation of stress interactions is expected, exhibiting an incidence-angle dependency, slightly affecting effective parameters, and differentiating the numerical and analytical solutions.     

水平分层孔隙介质中点源激发的震电波场数值模拟及分析

为认识地震波诱导的电磁场的特性,本文研究地震波在孔隙介质中由于动电效应引起的电磁场.基于Pride弹性-电磁耦合方程组推导了双力偶震源对应的位移-应力-电磁场间断向量的表达式,模拟了双力偶源激发的震电波场.作为比较,还模拟了爆炸点源激发的震电波场.结果表明：存在伴随纵波的电场,其各分量的波形与固相位移对应分量的波形相似,但相位相反;存在伴随横波的磁场,其波形与固相位移波形相似;双力偶震源还激发出了独立传播的辐射电磁场,其速度比纵波至少高一个数量级,几乎是“瞬间同时”到达了每个接收器,但是其强度比伴随电磁场小得多,且随着源距增大而迅速减小.本文研究还表明：伴随纵波的电场强度不仅与地震纵波幅度和动电耦合系数有关,还与由介质孔隙结构决定的流-固两相动力协调性有关,存在一种动力协调介质,纵波在这种介质中不引起电场.     

Laboratory measurements of seismic attenuation and Young's modulus dispersion in a partially and fully water‐saturated porous sample made of sintered borosilicate glass

We measured the extensional‐mode attenuation and Young's modulus in a porous sample made of sintered borosilicate glass at microseismic to seismic frequencies (0.05–50 Hz) using the forced oscillation method. Partial saturation was achieved by water imbibition, varying the water saturation from an initial dry state up to ～99%, and by gas exsolution from an initially fully water‐saturated state down to ～99%. During forced oscillations of the sample effective stresses up to 10 MPa were applied. We observe frequency‐dependent attenuation, with a peak at 1–5 Hz, for ～99% water saturation achieved both by imbibition and by gas exsolution. The magnitude of this attenuation peak is consistently reduced with increasing fluid pressure and is largely insensitive to changes in effective stress. Similar observations have recently been attributed to wave‐induced gas exsolution–dissolution. At full water saturation, the left‐hand side of an attenuation curve, with a peak beyond the highest measured frequency, is observed at 3 MPa effective stress, while at 10 MPa effective stress the measured attenuation is negligible. This observation is consistent with wave‐induced fluid flow associated with mesoscopic compressibility contrasts in the sample's frame. These variations in compressibility could be due to fractures and/or compaction bands that formed between separate sets of forced‐oscillation experiments in response to the applied stresses. The agreement of the measured frequency‐dependent attenuation and Young's modulus with the Kramers–Kronig relations and additional data analyses indicate the good quality of the measurements. Our observations point to the complex interplay between structural and fluid heterogeneities on the measured seismic attenuation and they illustrate how these heterogeneities can facilitate the dominance of one attenuation mechanism over another.     

背景为各向异性的含裂缝岩石频散和衰减计算方法研究

裂缝广泛分布于各类储层岩石中, 并且会显著提高储层的渗流能力.因此, 裂缝的评价和表征对于提高油气产能具有重要意义.由于裂缝与背景介质之间的波致流会显著影响地震波的频散和衰减特性, 所以地震勘探是评价裂缝性储层的有效手段.裂缝地震定量表征的前提是要基于含裂缝岩石中波致流对频散和衰减的影响建立含裂缝岩石物理特性与地震性质的关系.然而, 目前相关的理论研究大部分基于各向同性背景这一假设, 难以有效应用于常见的各向异性储层.本文针对背景为各向异性的含裂缝岩石提出了频散和衰减的计算方法.该方法首先将含裂缝岩石中的各向异性背景介质等效为层状背景介质; 然后, 通过分析不同频率下层状含裂缝岩石中的流体压力分布, 理论计算了两个特定的中间频率并求解得到两个中间频率下的弹性参数; 进一步, 以计算得到的两个特定中间频率以及高低频极限下的弹性参数为基础, 应用数值方法求解得到弛豫函数中的未知参数, 最终实现了背景为各向异性含裂缝岩石中频散和衰减的理论模拟.通过将理论预测结果与实验测量和数值模拟结果进行对比, 验证了该方法在背景为各向异性含不同分布裂缝岩石中的有效性.本文提出的方法考虑了常见的各向异性背景对含裂缝岩石频散和衰减的影响, 因而在裂缝性储层的地震勘探中具有广泛的应用前景.

     

Evaluation of wind effects on a supertall building based on full‐scale measurements

This paper describes the results obtained from the full‐scale measurements of wind effects on a 70‐storey building in Hong Kong. The building which has a height of approximately 370 m is the second tallest structure in Hong Kong. The field data such as wind speed, wind direction and wind‐induced acceleration responses have been measured since 1995 including the close passage of two typhoons; typhoon Sally and typhoon Kent. Detailed analysis of the field data is conducted. The full‐scale measurements are compared with the wind tunnel results obtained in the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory at Western Ontario University. The amplitude‐dependent characteristics of damping and natural frequency that were obtained by using the random decrement technique are investigated. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Air and water flows induced by pumping tests in unconfined aquifers with low‐permeability zones

Air flows from the atmosphere into an unconfined aquifer when the water table falls during pumping tests. Pumping test results in unconfined aquifers may be significantly affected by low‐permeability zones (LPZs) near the initial water table position, because they restrict the downward movement of air. A transient, three‐dimensional air–water two‐phase flow model is employed to investigate numerically the effects of local heterogeneity on pumping test results in unconfined aquifers. Two cases of local heterogeneities are considered herein: a LPZ around the pumping well and on one side of the pumping well. Results show that the drawdown with the LPZ is significantly greater than that of the homogeneous aquifer. The differences in drawdown are the most significant at intermediate times and gradually diminish at later times. The LPZ significantly reduces air flow from the atmosphere to the aquifer. The pore air velocity in the LPZ is very low. The air pressure at the observation point under the LPZ when air begins to enter is significantly lower than the air pressure of the homogeneous aquifer at the same point. After that, the air pressure increases quickly and then increases slowly. The time for the air pressure to reach the atmospheric pressure is significantly longer. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial measurements of stream baseflow,a relevant method for aquifer characterization and permeability evaluation. Application to a hard‐rock aquifer,the Oman ophiolite

The structure, functioning and hydrodynamic properties of aquifers can be determined from an analysis of the spatial variability of baseflow in the streams with which they are associated. Such analyses are based on simple low‐cost measurements. Through interpreting the hydrological profiles (Q = f(A)) it is possible to locate the aquifer(s) linked to the stream network and to determine the type of interrelated flow, i.e. whether the stream drains or feeds the aquifer. Using an analytical solution developed for situations with a positive linear relationship, i.e. where the baseflow increases linearly with increasing catchment size, it is also possible to estimate the permeability of the aquifer(s) concerned at catchment scale. Applied to the hard‐rock aquifers of the Oman ophiolite, this method shows that the ‘gabbro’ aquifer is more permeable than the ‘peridotite’ aquifer. As a consequence the streams drain the peridotites and ‘leak’ into the gabbro. The hydrological profiles within the peridotite are linear and positive, and indicate homogeneity in the hydrodynamic properties of these formations at the kilometre scale. The permeability of the peridotite is estimated at 5 · 10^?7 to 5 · 10^?8 m/s. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sub‐sample time shift and horizontal displacement measurements using phase‐correlation method in time‐lapse seismic

Hydrocarbon production and fluid injection affect the level of subsurface stress and physical properties of the subsurface, and can cause reservoir‐related issues, such as compaction and subsidence. Monitoring of oil and gas reservoirs is therefore crucial. Time‐lapse seismic is used to monitor reservoirs and provide evidence of saturation and pressure changes within the reservoir. However, relative to background velocities and reflector depths, the time‐lapse changes in velocity and geomechanical properties are typically small between consecutive surveys. These changes can be measured by using apparent displacement between migrated images obtained from recorded data of multiple time‐lapse surveys. Apparent displacement measurements by using the classical cross‐correlation method are poorly resolved. Here, we propose the use of a phase‐correlation method, which has been developed in satellite imaging for sub‐pixel registration of the images, to overcome the limitations of cross‐correlation. Phase correlation provides both vertical and horizontal displacements with a much better resolution. After testing the method on synthetic data, we apply it to a real dataset from the Norne oil field and show that the phase‐correlation method can indeed provide better resolution.     

Processes,spatio‐temporal factors and measurements of current erosion in the French Southern Alps: a review

Present erosion in mountainous areas of Western Europe causes land management problems, particularly for areas located downstream of erosion zones. Except for transalpine roads and ski resorts, economic activities no longer require as much space as they did in the past. Therefore, natural reforestation has provided signi?cant protection for alpine hillslopes during the 20th century. However, extreme ?oods continue to cause severe damage in intra‐alpine valleys, as well as in piedmont and surrounding plains, making the study of present water erosion phenomena very important. Many studies have investigated the processes and factors of water erosion on slopes at both the catchment and plot scales. They have focused on rock fragmentation and transportation in different ?elds, the spatial and temporal explanatory variables, the consequences downstream (?ooding, sedimentation, river bed evolution) and the impact of ?oods. In the French Alps, present erosion has been studied in a variety of outcrops, with several recent studies conducted in ?elds such as marls, clayey deposits, molasses and moraines. These kinds of outcrops are found throughout the alpine massif, including an area of special interest on the great Jurassic black marl outcrop where badlands are frequently observable. Geomorphologists and hydrologists have been particularly interested in the strong erosion processes in marls, seeking to determine the main patterns and the impact of spatial and temporal factors on soil loss quantities. The main climatic factors of rock disaggregation were found to be the freeze–thaw and wet–dry cycles, which destroy rock cohesion, and the splash effect of rain. The principal site variables are vegetation cover, exposure and dip–slope angle. Erosion rates are two or three orders of magnitude higher on bare soils than on pastures; northern aspect slopes suffer two to four times as much soil loss as southern aspect slopes. Finally, the angle formed by the slope and the dip also determines different behaviours: erosion rates are higher when slope and dip are perpendicular than when they are parallel. The transportation agents are mostly debris ?ows and runoff caused by intense precipitation. Annual erosion depth in the marls is generally assumed to be substantial, up to 10 mm. The high value can be explained by the severity of the climatic conditions and the brittleness of the lithology, which results in numerous fractures. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Characterization of fractured reservoirs using a consistent stiffness‐permeability model: focus on the effects of fracture aperture

In this paper we propose a method for the characterization of naturally fractured reservoirs by quantitative integration of seismic and production data. The method is based on a consistent theoretical frame work to model both effective hydraulic and elastic properties of fractured porous media and a (non‐linear) Bayesian method of inversion that provides information about uncertainties as well as mean (or maximum likelihood) values. We model a fractured reservoir as a porous medium containing a single set of vertical fractures characterized by an unknown fracture density, azimuthal orientation and aperture. We then look at the problem of fracture parameter estimation as a non‐linear inverse problem and try to estimate the unknown fracture parameters by joint inversion of seismic amplitude versus angle and azimuth data and dynamic production data. Once the fracture parameters have been estimated the corresponding effective stiffness and permeability tensors can be estimated using consistent models. A synthetic example is provided to clearly explain and test the workflow. It shows that seismic and production data complement each other, in the sense that the seismic data resolve a non‐uniqueness in the fracture orientation and the production data help to recover the true fracture aperture and permeability, because production data are more sensitive to the fracture aperture than the seismic data.     

含起伏地形地层中点源激发的震电响应研究

地震诱导电磁现象是国内外地学领域十分关注的前沿问题,前人对地震波和电磁场耦合波场的认识主要是基于规则模型获得的.为研究含起伏地表和地下界面的地层中震电波场激发、传播特性,本文采用有限元软件COMSOL Multiphysics模拟点震源激发的电磁场.首先给出频率域二维SHTE模式震电耦合方程组,然后利用COMSOL软件建立计算模型,并求解出点力源激发震电波场的频率域响应,最后利用FFT变换得到地震波场和电磁场的时间域波形.模拟结果表明,震电波场中存在三种类型的电磁信号,第一种是震源直接激发的电磁波;第二种是地震波在分界面处激发的电磁波（包括自由表面、地下不同介质分界面）;第三种是伴随地震波的同震信号,前两种电磁波比地震波更早到达远处观测台站,对地震预警有重要意义.此外,研究还发现：当地震波传播至地表并沿着地表传播时,在地表附近空气层中同样记录到了伴随地震波传播的电磁扰动信号,该信号与相同水平源距条件下、地下观测点接收到的电磁信号相同,这与前人的一些观测结果相符.本文研究结果为今后地震电磁信号的解释提供了理论证据.

     

轴对称各向异性介质波动方程深度偏移的对称非平稳相移方法

由所建立的三维qP波相速度表示式出发,导出并解析求解各向异性介质中的频散方程,得到三维各向异性介质中的相移算子,进而将以相移算子为基础的对称非平稳相移方法推广到各向异性介质,发展了一个三维各向异性介质的深度偏移方法. 文中使用的各向异性介质的速度模型与现行的各向异性构造的速度估计方法一致,将各向同性、弱各向异性及强各向异性统一在一个模型中. 所建立的各向异性介质对称非平稳相移波场延拓算子可以同时适应速度及各向异性参数横向变化;文中给出的算例虽然是针对二维VTI介质的,但所提出的算法同样适用于三维TI介质.     

Long‐term investigations of the snow cover in a subalpine semi‐forested catchment

To improve spring runoff forecasts from subalpine catchments, detailed spatial simulations of the snow cover in this landscape is obligatory. For more than 30 years, the Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL has been conducting extensive snow cover observations in the subalpine watershed Alptal (central Switzerland). This paper summarizes the conclusions from past snow studies in the Alptal valley and presents an analysis of 14 snow courses located at different exposures and altitudes, partly in open areas and partly in forest. The long‐term performance of a physically based numerical snow–vegetation–atmosphere model (COUP) was tested with these snow‐course measurements. One single parameter set with meteorological input variables corrected to the prevailing local conditions resulted in a convincing snow water equivalent (SWE) simulation at most sites and for various winters with a wide range of snow conditions. The snow interception approach used in this study was able to explain the forest effect on the SWE as observed on paired snow courses. Finally, we demonstrated for a meadow and a forest site that a successful simulation of the snowpack yields appropriate melt rates. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Aeolian sediment transport on a recovering storm‐eroded foredune with sand fences

Studies of sediment transport on developed coasts provide perspective on how human adjustments alter natural processes. Deployment of sand‐trapping fences is a common adjustment that changes the characteristics of the dune ramp and its role in linking sediment transfers from the backshore to the foredune. Fence effects were evaluated in the field using anemometer arrays and vertical sediment traps placed across a beach and dune at Seaside Park, New Jersey, USA during onshore and longshore winds. The foredune is 18 m wide and 4.5 m above the backshore. The mean speed of onshore winds at 0.5 m elevation decreased by 17% from the berm crest to the upper ramp and 36% in the lee of a fence there. Sediment transport during mean wind speeds up to 8.0 m s^?1 at 0.5 m elevation was < 0.06 kg m^?1 h^?1 on the berm crest and backshore where fetch distances were < 45 m and surface sediment was relatively coarse (0.74–0.85 mm) but increased to 5.63 kg m^?1 h^?1 on the upper ramp aided by the longer fetch distances (up to 82 m) and finer grain size of the source sediment there (0.52 mm). Sediment transport along the berm crest and backshore during longshore winds, where fetch distances were > 200 m, was up to 58.69 kg m^?1 h^?1, about three orders of magnitude greater than during the onshore winds. Fences can displace the toe of the ramp farther seaward than would occur under natural conditions. They can create a gentler slope and change the shape of the ramp to a more convex form. A fence on the ramp can cut off a portion of sediment supply to the upper slope. Decisions about fence placement thus should consider these morphologic changes in addition to the effects on dune volume. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

High‐resolution seismic monitoring of instrumented buildings using a model‐based state observer

This paper proposes a model‐based state observer to perform high‐definition response estimation in partially instrumented building structures. The proposed estimator is verified in a simulated five‐story shear‐building structure and validated using measurements from a seven‐story reinforced concrete building slice tested at the NEES‐University of California at San Diego shake table. In both cases the proposed estimator yielded satisfactory results by estimating the time history of shear forces, bending moments, displacements, and strains at various points/sections of interest. The proposed algorithm can be used in instrumented buildings for various practical applications such as post‐earthquake damage assessment, structural control, and building code calibration. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.