Dynamic microplasticity manifestation in consolidated sandstone in the acoustical frequency range

Microplasticity manifestations caused by acoustical wave in the frequency range of about 4.5 kHz–7.0 kHz are detected in consolidated artificial sandstone. Equipment was tested by means of comparison of data obtained for a standard material (aluminium) and sandstone. Microplasticity manifestations in acoustic records are present in the form of the ladder‐like changes in the amplitude course. The stress plateaus in the acoustic trace interrupt the amplitude course, transform the wavefront, and shift the arrival time along the time axis. Microplasticity contribution to the acoustic record changes with the increase in the strain amplitude value. The combined elastic–microplastic process conditions the wavefront steepness and its duration. Stress plateaus exert influence on the waveform and, accordingly, on pulse frequency response. These results confirm the earlier data obtained for weakly consolidated rock. This contribution to wave propagation physics can be useful in solving applied problems, as, for instance, the reservoir properties prediction by means of wave attenuation in acoustic logging and seismic prospecting.     

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE CHANGES OF ULTRASONIC CODA WAVE AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION DURING ROCK LOADING AND DEFORMATION

The coda wave propagation path has received extensive attention as it is more sensitive to small changes in the medium than the direct wave. During the process of loading, the wave velocity, medium or source changes may cause the coda wave to change. The physical mechanism of change in the ultrasonic coda wave varies during different deformation stages. Meanwhile, there exist local damages in the rock sample during the deformation, and it will be accompanied by acoustic emission. Combining the ultrasonic coda wave and acoustic emission is beneficial to characterize the coda wave characteristics and damage degree of the sample at different deformation stages. In this paper, three kinds of rocks, including granodiorite, marble and sandstone with the sizes of 50mm×50mm×150mm, are used to carry out observations of ultrasonic coda wave and acoustic emission during the whole process of loading so as to study characteristics of the coda wave at different deformation stages. The major results are given below: 1)There is a good correspondence between the coda wave variation and the acoustic emission evolution process. When the acoustic emission frequency increases, the coda wave changes accordingly. In particular, the coda wave changes in the early stages of increased acoustic emission frequency, which indicates that the early damage information of rock can be obtained by analysis of the coda wave. 2)The physical mechanism of the coda wave change is different in different deformation stages. At the initial stage of loading, there are obvious scatterer changes in the coda wave change; then, in the linear elastic deformation stage, the wave velocity change is dominating; in the late-stage of loading, the scatterer change increases and coexists with the wave velocity change, the scatterer change effect is related with the rock micro-fracture degree, the rock will locally be damaged before rupturing, and the role of the scatterer will be enhanced. 3)With the increase of loading, the amplitude of increase of the wave velocity generally decreases gradually, which is basically consistent with the understanding obtained through the direct wave. The interference of acoustic emission can be eliminated because of the Kaiser effect when analyzing the coda wave. The consistency of the wave velocity change and stress loading and unloading is further verified. 4)The micro-fracture generated during rock deformation will change the physical mechanism of the coda wave change, and the scatterer effect will be significantly enhanced. At the same time, the acoustic emission waveform will cause interference to the ultrasonic coda wave. This means that attention needs to be paid when analyzing rock damage using only coda wave data. In short, the ultrasonic coda wave and acoustic emission can reflect the damage inside the rock, and the change mechanism of the coda wave in different deformation stages is different. The joint observation of the two can play a mutual verification role, which is conducive to improving the reliability of the observation results.     

单极源钻铤波传播机制的实验研究2

随钻情况下准确测量地层的纵波速度是当前声波测井领域亟待解决的技术难点之一,本文则针对地层纵波速度的随钻测量问题,在实验室内进行了缩小模型的随钻声波测井实验研究.首先,针对无限大流体模型,记录不同声源频率下单极源钻铤波的时域波形,研究钻铤内外两区域钻铤波的传播规律,定量分析这两部分钻铤波的频率响应特性.结果表明,随着声源...     

多极源随钻声波测井实验分析

本文针对随钻声波测井中钻铤波干扰地层声波测量的问题,设计了小尺寸随钻声波测井探头,在实验室内开展了多极源(单极源、偶极源和四极源)随钻声波测井实验研究. 先在水池中对裸露的探头进行了随钻测量,记录到了沿钻铤传播的直达钻铤波,并获得了不同声源激发的钻铤波速度. 之后在砂岩和有机玻璃模型中进行了随钻声波测井实验,观测到多极源随钻测井的全波波形,并通过与水池中实验结果的对比,分析了井中钻铤波的传播特性. 特别地,在偶极随钻测井实验中不仅记录到了偶极一阶钻铤波,还观测到对弯曲波干扰较大的偶极二阶钻铤波,进而研究了不同声源频率下该波群的响应特性及其对弯曲波测量的影响. 此外,基于单极源和偶极源随钻声波测井实验数据,本文发现:随着声源频率的增加,单极和偶极钻铤波的传播特性不同,但它们在测井全波中的相对幅度均降低,进而可从测井全波中较好地提取地层的声波速度. 本文实验结果对随钻声波测井仪器设计及测井数据解释具有重要意义.     

低渗砂泥岩地层的声波测井波形特征

用于低渗砂岩油气开发的压裂需要地层的纵横波时差参数;压裂形成的人工裂缝或砂泥岩中的自然裂缝是油气流入井中的主要通道.声波测井是测量地层的纵横波时差、探测连通裂缝的有效方法.本文给出了新设计的偶极子组合声波测井仪器在低渗砂泥岩地层所测量的波形.新仪器利用声波在井内传播的固有频率设计探头,利用探头阻抗随频率的变化曲线设计匹配电路,有效地提高了声发射功率,在井下采用16位A/D转换器提高了原始波形的采样精度.测量的波形比通常的声波测井波形所含的地层信息丰富.单极子长源距声波测井波形中除了通常的纵、横波和Stoneley波外,还发现了起始于纵波首波的反射波以及随深度改变其到达时间的后续波.通过与其它测井曲线综合对比发现:其反射波与井眼扩径有关,使测量的声波时差加大;后续波在显示地层特征的同时,与横波混叠在一起,使横波时差的提取变得困难.另外,在偶极子所测量的低频波形中也发现了明显的反映地层连通裂缝的反射波,该反射波可以用于指示低渗砂岩地层中的连通裂缝.     

Seismoelectric measurements in a porous quartz‐sand sample with anisotropic permeability

Seismoelectric coupling coefficients are difficult to predict theoretically because they depend on a large numbers of rock properties, including porosity, permeability, tortuosity, etc. The dependence of the coupling coefficient on rock properties such as permeability requires experimental data. In this study, we carry out a set of laboratory measurements to determine the dependence of seismoelectric coupling coefficient on permeability. We use both an artificial porous “sandstone” sample, with cracks, built using quartz‐sand and Berea sandstone samples. The artificial sample is a cube with 39% porosity. Its permeability levels are anisotropic: 14.7 D, 13.8 D, and 8.3 D in the x‐, y‐, and z‐directions, respectively. Seismoelectric measurements are performed in a water tank in the frequency range of 20 kHz–90 kHz. A piezoelectric P‐wave source is used to generate an acoustic wave that propagates through the sample from the three different (x, y, and z) directions. The amplitudes of the seismoelectric signal induced by the acoustic waves vary with the direction. The highest signal is in the direction of the highest permeability, and the lowest signal is in the direction of the lowest permeability. Since the porosity of the sample is constant, the results directly show the dependence of seismoelectric coefficients on permeability. Seismoelectric measurements with natural rocks are performed using Berea sandstone 500 and 100 samples. Because the Berea samples are nearly isotropic in permeability, the amplitudes of the seismoelectric signals induced in the different directions are the same within the measurement error. Because the permeability of Berea 500 is higher than that of Berea 100, the amplitude of the seismoelectric signals induced in Berea 500 is higher than those in Berea 100. To determine the relative contributions of porosity and permeability on seismoelectric conversion, we carried out an analysis, using Pride (1994) formulation and Kozeny–Carman relationship; the normalized amplitudes of seismoelectric coupling coefficients in three directions are calculated and compared with the experimental results. The results show that the seismoelectric conversion is related to permeability in the frequency range of measurements. This is an encouraging result since it opens the possibility of determining the permeability of a formation from seismoelectric measurements.     

致密砂岩水压瞬态致裂液化格子波尔兹曼及有限元数值研究

水压瞬态致裂液化在地应力测量、 地震破坏评估和机理研究、 油气(天然气、 页岩气)及地热资源开发等地学领域都具有重要的理论和应用价值。 自20世纪60年代至今在理论和实际应用方面取得了一些奠基性和开创性成果, 但鉴于问题复杂性, 瞬态致裂液化机理至今尚不清楚。 本研究应用格子波尔兹曼及有限元多孔介质流固耦合物理模型, 对地震波载荷作用下致密砂岩水压瞬态致裂液化过程进行数值模拟研究。 首先, 以鄂尔多斯盆地某油田延长组致密砂岩为例, 利用X射线CT断层成像技术, 应用基于量子力学第一性原理格子波尔兹曼方法, 建立致密砂岩数字岩芯模型。 进而, 推导格子波尔兹曼及有限元多孔介质流固耦合数值模型公式, 建立致密砂岩水压致裂液化物理模型。 最后, 应用地震波载荷边界和初始条件, 模拟瞬态致裂液化流固耦合过程, 讨论了地震波载荷幅值、 频率及作用时间对致密砂岩孔隙结构(孔隙度大小及连通性)、 致密砂岩破裂最大主应力之间关系, 得到了地震波作用下致密砂岩致裂液化准则。     

极区电极流调制实验研究

本文基于2017—2019年我国在EISCAT开展的极区电极流调制实验数据,分析加热波功率和极化,以及激发频率和接收位置对调制加热激发的ELF/VLF电磁波强度的影响,分析结果表明：（1）随着加热波功率等级的增加,激发的ELF/VLF电磁波强度增加,其功率因子取值范围为0.5~2.3;（2）相对O波,加热波极化采用X波时更有利于ELF/VLF电磁波的激发,两者的差值在3.6~13.9 dB内变化;（3）随着激发频率的增加,辐射ELF/VLF电磁波强度先增大后减小,且在2 kHz附近及其谐波附近具有最大值;（4）电极流调制激励的ELF/VLF电磁波在地球-电离层波导中传播不具有方向性,辐射波由15 km传输到208 km时,信号幅度衰减超过12 dB.

     

大功率高频电波加热电离层中参量衰减不稳定性研究(2):EISCAT实验观测

本文利用欧洲非相干散射雷达协会(European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association,EISCAT)的两次加热实验诊断数据,基于我们在文章(1)中建立的数值模型,定量分析了实验过程中出现参量衰减不稳定性(Parametric decay instability,PDI)的物理过程.分析结果如下:(1)通过对两次加热实验数据的分析,均观测到了增强的等离子体谱线(HFPLs)和离子声波谱线(HFILs),谱线的频率和加热电波频率满足频率匹配条件,表明电离层加热过程中参量衰减不稳定性的激发.(2)通过对加热电波反射区电子密度和离子密度模拟数据的谱分析,可以清晰发现与实验结果相符的朗缪尔波和离子声波.实验1观测到的离子声波谱线频率为8.8 kHz,而模拟得到的离子声波在5～6 kHz,实验2观测到的离子声波谱线为7.1 kHz,而模拟得到的离子声波频率在5.5～6 kHz,模拟结果与实验观测比较一致.(3)实验观测和模拟结果均表明,在参量衰减不稳定性激发过程中,加热电波频率(f_h)与等离子谱线频率和离子声波谱线频率(f_(ia))并不是简单匹配,实验1观测到的等离子体谱线频率为f_h-3f_(ia),实验2观测到的等离子体谱线增强频率为f_h—f_(ia)和f_h—3f_(ia).这一结果表明在加热过程中出现了多次参量衰减的现象,从而为朗缪尔湍流的激发提供了条件.     

一种利用双源反激的随钻声波测井方法

随钻单极子纵波测井时存在很强的钻铤波的干扰.针对这一问题,提出了一种双源反激随钻声波测井方法,从数据采集环节对钻铤波进行压制;在后续数据处理中结合声波干涉法,从而实现一种无需隔声装置的随钻声波测井方法.理论模拟表明双源反激方法可以有效压制钻铤波,地层波的信噪比也能得到相对增强.对钻铤波压制后的数据进一步用声波干涉法处理可以从中提取地层纵波信息.设计了实验样机,并在空气中进行了实验.结果表明不同工作频率下该方法对钻铤波均有明显的压制效果,即使在5 kHz低频情况下钻铤波也能压制到原来的25%.验证了该方法的可行性.应用该方法的好处是可以避免对钻铤强度的破坏,并能扩展现有随钻声波测井仪纵波测量的工作频带范围.     

Scattering and attenuation of elastic waves in random media

In seismic exploration, elastic waves are sent to investigate subsurface geology. However, the transmission and interpretation of the elastic wave propagation is complicated by various factors. One major reason is that the earth can be a very complex medium. Nevertheless, in this paper, we model some terrestrial material as an elastic medium consisting of randomly distributed inclusions with a considerable concentration. The waves incident on such an inhomogeneous medium undergo multiple scattering due to the presence of inclusions. Consequently, the wave energy is redistributed thereby reducing the amplitude of the coherent wave.The coherent or average wave is assumed to be propagating in a homogeneous continuum characterized by a bulk complex wavenumber. This wavenumber depends on the frequency of the probing waves; and on the physical properties and the concentration of discrete scatterers, causing the effective medium to be dispersive. With the help of multiple scattering theory, we are able to analytically predict the attenuation of the transmitted wave intensity as well as the dispersion of the phase velocity. These two sets of data are valuable to the study of the inverse scattering problems in seismology. Some numerical results are presented and also compared, if possible, with experimental measurements.     

Frequency-dependence of velocity and attenuation of elastic waves in granite under uniaxial compression

Velocity as well as attenuation factorQ ^–1 ofP-wave in a dry granitic rock sample under uniaxial compressions were measured in the range of frequency between 100 kHz and 710 kHz by using the pulse transmission technique. Above the stress of 0.5 _f , where _f is the fracture stress, theP-wave velocity decreases with increasing axial stress, whereasQ ^–1 increases. Particularly, the change ofQ ^–1 is greater for high frequency than for low frequency. At a given stress level, the higher the frequency, the higher theP-wave velocity and the largerQ ^–1. This result means that the velocity decrease with increasing stress is smaller for higher frequency. Because of this frequency-dependence of velocity decrease, theP-wave in the rock under dilatant state shows dispersion. The body wave dispersion is more remarkable at higher stress, and is not found in a homogeneous material with no cracks. Thus the disperison is attributed to the generation of cracks. When the frequency-dependence ofQ ^–1 is approximated asf ⁿ in the present frequency range, the exponentn takes a value from 0.63 to 0.77.     

利用井中低频偶极横波进行声波远探测的新方法

为了突破目前声波远探测技术存在的局限性,提出了一种新的偶极横波远探测方法,即利用井中偶极子产生的井中弯曲波存在低频截止频率的现象,在声源截止频率以下激发偶极声波.通过对比分析井中偶极声源分别在截止频率上、下激发时,井孔内外产生的辐射声场,明确了截止频率以下井中偶极声源的远场辐射特征和低频截止频率激发偶极横波的优势,结合数值模拟,进一步对其反射声场进行了分析.结果表明,该方法可以避免艾里相的巨大振幅对数据量化产生的"饱和"效应,相比传统的远探测测井方式更具优势,常规源距即可满足专门的远探测测井仪器需求.     

Experimental measurements of the streaming potential and seismoelectric conversion in Berea sandstone

The streaming potential across a porous medium is induced by a fluid flow due to an electric double layer between a solid and a fluid. When an acoustic wave propagates through a porous medium, the wave pressure generates a relative movement between the solid and the fluid. The moving charge in the fluid induces an electric field and seismoelectric conversion. In order to investigate the streaming potential and the seismoelectric conversion in the same rock sample, we conduct measurements with Berea sandstone saturated by NaCl solutions with different conductivities. We measure the electric voltage (streaming potential) across a cylindrical sample in NaCl solutions with different conductivities and under different pressures to determine the DC coupling coefficients. We also measure the seismoelectric signals induced by acoustic waves with a Berea sandstone plate at different frequencies and solution conductivities. The pressures of the acoustic waves are calibrated with a standard hydrophone (Brüel & 8103) at different frequencies (15–120 kHz). We calculate the quantitative coupling coefficients of the seismoelectric conversion at DC and at high frequencies with samples saturated by solutions with different conductivities. When the Berea sandstone sample is saturated by the NaCl solution with 0.32 mS/m in conductivity, for example, the DC and seismoelectric coupling coefficients at 15 kHz are 0.024 μV/Pa and 0.019 μV/Pa, respectively. The seismoelectric coupling coefficient is an important and helpful parameter for designing a seismoelectric tool. More experimental measurements of seismoelectric coupling coefficients in the frequency range of 100 Hz to 15 kHz are needed in the future.     

腾冲火山区剪切波和尾波衰减初步研究

用云南腾冲火山地区观测的地震数字化记录进行了尾波和剪切波的衰减测量。用AkiandChouet和Sato单次散射模型获得 5 2秒和 18秒流逝时间尾波的品质因子分别为Qc (f) =5 7×f- 0 94和Qc (f) =2 6×f- 0 95 ,表明地壳上部和地壳上地幔的地震波衰减频率变化率一致。两者均未显示出活火山地区尾波衰减的异常特征。尾波掠过空间椭球的平均半轴 ,前者约为 80km ,大大超出了腾冲火山分布的地理范围 ,后者约为 30km ,在腾冲火山分布的地理范围之内。用尾波规一双台S波振幅比法进一步缩小所用地震波掠过的空间 ,最后获得了S波随频率的衰减有类似于前人报导的活火山地区尾波频率衰减的特征 :相对于低频 (1 5～ 6Hz) ,高频 (6～2 0Hz)的Q- 1s 变化很小。从地表位置看 ,腾冲最年青的全新世的马鞍山和老龟坡火山就在S波掠过范围内 ,打鹰山火山也在近旁。这一结果表明在这三座火山体之下存在低速高衰减体。火山或处于休眠状态 ,或在消亡过程之中。     

有效应力变化对致密砂岩孔隙结构及弹性波响应的影响规律

致密砂岩气藏具有裂缝发育和有效应力高的特征,研究不同有效压力下孔、裂隙介质地震波传播特征,有利于地震解释与地下储层的识别.但是前人的研究较少考虑岩石内部微观孔隙结构特征与孔隙、裂隙间流体流动的关系.本文首先通过选取四川盆地典型致密砂岩岩样,在不同有效压力下对岩石样本进行超声波实验测量.然后基于实验测得的纵、横波速度进行裂隙参数反演,得到不同有效压力下致密砂岩样本的裂隙孔隙度.再将裂隙孔隙度和样本岩石物理参数代入双重孔隙介质模型,模拟得到不同有效压力下饱水致密砂岩样本纵横波速度频散和衰减的变化规律.结果表明模型预测的速度频散曲线与纵波速度实验测量结果能够较好的吻合.最后统计分析了致密砂岩裂隙参数,得到了致密砂岩储层裂隙参数随有效压力及孔隙度变化特征.依据实际岩石物理参数建立模型,其裂隙参数三维拟合结果能够较好描述致密砂岩裂隙结构与孔隙度、应力的关联,可为实际地震勘探中预测储层裂缝性质提供基础依据.     

Comparison of P‐wave attenuation models of wave‐induced flow

Wave‐induced oscillatory fluid flow in the vicinity of inclusions embedded in porous rocks is one of the main causes for P‐wave dispersion and attenuation at seismic frequencies. Hence, the P‐wave velocity depends on wave frequency, porosity, saturation, and other rock parameters. Several analytical models quantify this wave‐induced flow attenuation and result in characteristic velocity–saturation relations. Here, we compare some of these models by analyzing their low‐ and high‐frequency asymptotic behaviours and by applying them to measured velocity–saturation relations. Specifically, the Biot–Rayleigh model considering spherical inclusions embedded in an isotropic rock matrix is compared with White's and Johnson's models of patchy saturation. The modeling of laboratory data for tight sandstone and limestone indicates that, by selecting appropriate inclusion size, the Biot‐Rayleigh predictions are close to the measured values, particularly for intermediate and high water saturations.     

孔隙地层轻质水泥套管井中偶极弯曲波的激发与传播特性

针对软地层套管井中弯曲波频散移向高频,以致超出了现行偶极声波测井仪器的激发频带的问题,本文在井外为孔隙地层时,采用Biot模型对套管井多极源激发的声波场进行了理论推导,对套管井偶极弯曲波的频散特性进行了数值模拟,考察了高密度水泥(或快速水泥)和低密度水泥(或轻质水泥)情况下的弯曲波频散,分析了不同水泥环对弯曲波主频散区和激发谱偏移的影响,重点对轻质水泥套管井中偶极源激发的模式波频散与激发谱及临界折射P、S波激发特性进行了研究,并考察了渗透率、孔隙度对弯曲波频散及衰减的影响,利用实轴积分法计算了偶极声源激发的时域全波波形.分析对比结果表明,在快速水泥情况下弯曲波频散曲线随着地层特征横波速度的减小会迅速向高频移动,随着快速水泥向轻质水泥变化,弯曲波频散曲线向高频移动将会减缓,对于特征横波速度低于1400m·s~(-1)的软地层,偶极弯曲波基础模式主频散区(或截止频率)可以由原来13kHz向低频移动至4kHz;在轻质水泥套管井中,无论是硬地层还是软地层,在目前偶极声波测井仪器声源主频激发下,接收波形中弯曲波均占主导地位.     

Equipment for the studies of the acoustic properties of hydrate-containing samples in laboratory conditions

Equipment for simulation in laboratory conditions of hydrate-containing artificial samples and measuring their acoustic properties (wave velocities, absorption and attenuation) at different temperature and pressures is designed and constructed. The plant consists of a high-pressure chamber (up to 45 MPa), a measuring system intended for the excitation and reception of acoustic waves, systems for temperature and pressure control (axial and lateral) and for gas/liquid delivery into the sample. The measurements are performed on cylindrical samples with a 30-mm diameter and height of 10–50 mm. A set of successful test experiments was performed, including measurements of acoustic velocities of consolidated (plexiglas, sandstone, and frozen sand) and unconsolidated (dry and wet quartz sand) samples and formation of methane-hydrate bearing samples.     

Estimation of frequency dependent coda wave attenuation structure at the vicinity of Cairo Metropolitan Area

Estimation of seismic wave attenuation in the shallow crust in terms of coda wave Q structure previously investigated in the vicinity of Cairo Metropolitan Area was improved using seismograms of local earthquakes recorded by the Egyptian National Seismic Network. The seismic wave attenuation was measured from the time decay of coda wave amplitudes on narrow bandpass filtered seismograms based on the single scattering theory. The frequency bands of interest are from 1.5 to 18 Hz. In general, the values obtained for various events recorded at El-Fayoum and Wadi Hagul stations are very similar for all frequency bands. A regional attenuation law Q _c = 85.66 f ^0.79 was obtained.