Numerical analysis under seismic loads of soils improvement with floating stone columns

Geotechnical Engineering has developed many methods for soil improvement so far. One of these methods is the stone column method. The structure of a stone column generally refers to partial change of suitable subsurface ground through a vertical column, poor stone layers which are completely pressed. In general terms, to improve bearing capacity of problematic soft and loose soil is implemented for the resolution of many problems such as consolidation and grounding problems, to ensure filling and splitting slope stability and liquefaction that results from a dynamic load such as earthquake. In this study, stone columns method is preferred as an improvement method, and especially load transfer mechanisms and bearing capacity of floating stone column are focused. The soil model, 32 m in width and 8 m in depth, used in this study is made through Plaxis 2D finite element program. The clay having 5° internal friction angle with different cohesion coefficients (c 10, c 15, c 20 kN/m²) are used in models. In addition, stone columns used for soil improvement are modeled at different internal friction angles (? 35°, ? 40°, ? 45°) and in different s/D ranges (s/D 2, s/D 3), stone column depths (B, 2B, 3B) and diameters (D 600 mm, D 800 mm, D 1000 mm). In the study, maximum acceleration (a _max = 1.785 m/s²) was used in order to determine the seismic coefficient used. In these soil models, as maximum acceleration, maximum east–west directional acceleration value of Van Muradiye earthquake that took place in October 23, 2011 was used. As a result, it was determined that the stone column increased the bearing capacity of the soil. In addition, it is observed that the bearing capacity of soft clay soil which has been improved through stone column with both static and earthquake load effect increases as a result of increase in the diameter and depth of the stone column and decreases as a result of the increase in the ranges of stone column. In the conducted study, the bearing capacity of the soil models, which were improved with stone column without earthquake force effect, was calculated as 1.01–3.5 times more on the average, compared to the bearing capacity of the soil models without stone column. On the other hand, the bearing capacity of the soil models with stone columns, which are under the effect of earthquake force, was calculated as 1.02–3.7 times more compared to the bearing capacity of the soil models without stone column.     

Bearing strength surface for bridge caisson foundations in frictional soil under combined loading

The problem of estimating the bearing capacity of massive caisson foundations in frictional soil under combined vertical (N), horizontal (Q) and moment (M) loading is examined numerically by means of three-dimensional finite element analyses. The analysis is performed with due consideration to the foundation’s depth-to-width ratio (D/B), the magnitude of the vertical load and the caisson-soil contact interface conditions. The constitutive law for soil behavior is appropriately validated against experimental results from 1-g small-scale tests, available in the literature. The ultimate limit states are presented in the form of a bearing strength surface in dimensionless and normalized form, while detailed discussion is provided on the physical and geometrical interpretation of the kinematic mechanisms that accompany failure. A generalized closed-form expression for the failure envelope in M–Q–N space is then fitted to the numerical results with use of an appropriately trained artificial neural network. An upper-bound limit equilibrium solution for a certain failure mechanism (designated as the “sliding” mechanism) associated with maximum horizontal bearing capacity is also developed for verification purposes. One of the originalities of the paper lies with respect to the post-failure response of the caissons, where it is shown that the incremental displacement vector is accurately reproduced by assuming normality on the bearing strength surface irrespective of the considered plastic flow rule (associative or non-associative) at the microscale (soil element).     

Shear Strength Response of a Geotextile-Reinforced Chlef Sand: A Laboratory Study

During the last earthquake that occurred in Chlef (El Asnam 1980, Algeria), a significant decrease in the shear strength has caused major damages to several civil and hydraulic structures (earth dams, embankments, bridges, slopes and buildings), especially for the saturated sandy soil of the areas near Chlef valley. This paper presents a laboratory study of drained compression triaxial tests conducted on sandy soil reinforced with horizontal layers of geotextile, in order to study the influence of geotextile layer characteristics both on shear stress–strain and on volumetric change–strain. Tests were carried out on medium and dense sand. The experimental programme includes some drained compression tests performed on reinforced sand samples, for different values of the geotextile layers number (N _g), of confining pressure (\( \sigma_{\text{c}}^{\prime } \)) and relative density (D _r). The test results have shown that the contribution of the geotextile at low values of the axial strain (ε ₁) is negligible, for higher values of (ε ₁); geotextile induces a quasi-linear increase in the deviator stress (q) and leads to an increase in the volume contractiveness within the reinforced samples. A negligible influence of geotextile layers number (N _g) on the stress–strain behaviour and the volumetric change has been shown, when normalized with N _g. The results indicate that the contribution of geotextile to the stress–strain mobilization increases with increasing confining pressure, while its contribution to the volume contraction decreases with the increase in the confining pressure.     

Undrained Shear Strength in Cohesive Soils Estimated by Directional Modes of In-Situ Shear Wave Velocity

The estimated undrained shear strength (s_u) is often not a unique value because it can be evaluated by various test types and/or procedures, such as different failure modes, shear strain rates, and boundary conditions. This study explores (1) the relationship between reference undrained shear strength and in situ shear wave velocity in terms of the effective overburden stress, and (2) the independent relationships to evaluate the undrained shear strength with special consideration of different directional and polarization modes (VH, HV, HH shear waves), which has not been reported. This evaluation is done via a worldwide database compiled from 43 well-documented geotechnical test sites associated with soft ground. Finally, new correlation models are proposed to estimate the undrained shear strength based on the in situ shear wave velocity as well as the plasticity index or the overconsolidation ratio. The application of the shear wave velocity–undrained shear strength relation is illustrated through two independent case studies. The proposed relationships are expected to contribute to reasonable estimates of undrained shear strength as well as offer practical guidance on even extrapolation beyond the data that is available to geotechnical engineers.     

Anchorage behaviour of reinforced specimens containing a single fissure under uniaxial loading: a particle mechanics approach

Particle flow code (PFC^2D) software was adopted to investigate the anchorage behaviour and the characteristics of crack initiation, propagation and coalescence of reinforced specimens containing a single fissure (RSCSF). The microscopic parameters of the specimens in the numerical simulation were first validated by experimental outcomes of intact specimens, while the microscopic parameters of the rock bolts were validated based on the results of the RSCSF tests. Then, the mechanical parameters as well as the failure modes in the physical experiments were compared with those derived by the numerical simulation; the results showed good agreement between the simulated macroscopic mechanical properties and failure modes and those obtained in the laboratory experiments. The peak strength, number of cracks and the failure mode varied considerably as the anchorage angle α and fissure angle β increased. Three types of stress–strain curves, types I to III, were obtained from the RSCSF. Shear cracks were observed for all three categories of curves, but the tensile cracks were dominant. The number of cracks and the rate of bond failures decreased as the curve changed from type II to type I to type III. RSCSF failure can be classified into three failure modes: (1) tip crack propagation mode, (2) midpoint crack propagation mode and (3) rock bolt crack propagation mode. These failure modes are primarily differentiated by relations between α and β, and the ratio UCS_S/UCS_I between the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS, σ _max) of the RSCSF (UCS_S) and the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact specimen (UCS_I).     

Dynamic soil properties for microzonation of Delhi,India

Delhi, the capital of India, has experienced mild seismic shaking during several earthquakes in the past. The large variations of depth to bedrock and ground water table coupled with different soil types at different locations of Delhi necessitate a seismic microzonation study. Dynamic soil properties such as shear wave velocity, modulus reduction and damping characteristics of local soils are the basic and essential input parameters for conducting even a preliminary ground response analysis which is an essential input in microzonation studies. Shear wave velocity is not measured routinely due to its high cost and lack of the required expertise. Several researchers in the past developed correlations between shear wave velocity (V _s ) and routinely measured N values. In the present study, shear wave velocity profiles measured in the field at more than 80 borehole locations to a depth of about 20 to 32m using Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) are presented and correlations between shear wave velocity and N values are also presented for use by engineers and designers. Results of strain and stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests on remoulded samples of sand-silt mixtures in the high strain range are used for generating the modulus reduction and damping curves and are compared with the well-known curves in the literature. The results presented in this article can be used for microzonation studies as well as site specific ground response analyses at Delhi.     

Orthogonal test and regression analysis of the strain on silty soil in Shanghai under metro loading

Cyclic triaxial test by means of the geotechnical digital system is conducted for the soil near the Guoquan Road Station of Metro Line 10 in Shanghai to analyze the strain characteristics and the variation law of saturated silty soil under subway loading. Orthogonal design method is used to arrange the experiment, considering the following factors: frequency ratio f _R, cyclic stress ratio σ _R, vibration time ratio N _R, and the interaction function among them. Results show that the cyclic stress ratio σ _R, the frequency ratio f _R, the vibration time ratio N _R, and the interaction between the cyclic stress ratio σ _R and the vibration time ratio N _R have a significant effect on the axial strain of the subway tunnel. The effect of the interaction between the cyclic stress ratio σ _R and the vibration time ratio N _R is also significant. From the analysis of variance and regression theory, the nonlinear regression equation of the cumulative plastic strain of silty soil under subway loading is established. Residual analysis proves that the equation is ideal and credible. The results have important value for the design of subway tunnels.     

Assessing the vegetation canopy influences on wind flow using wind tunnel experiments with artificial plants

Wind erosion causes serious problems and considerable threat in most regions of the world. Vegetation on the ground has an important role in controlling wind erosion by covering soil surface and absorbing wind momentum. A set of wind tunnel experiments was performed to quantitatively examine the effect of canopy structure on wind movement. Artificial plastic vegetations with different porosity and canopy shape were introduced as the model canopy. Normalized roughness length (Z ₀/H) and shear velocity ratio (R) were analyzed as a function of roughness density (λ). Experiments showed that Z ₀/H increases and R decreases as λ reaches a maximum value, λ _max, while the values of Z ₀/H and R showed little change with λ value beyond as λ _max.     

Evolutionary connection between low-mass detached binaries,contact W UMa systems,and blue stragglers

We analyze the distribution of close binary stars in the orbital semimajor axis—primary mass plane. The reduced spatial density of stars with semimajor axes below 10R_⊙ is confirmed. We identify the area in this plane occupied by precursors of W UMa stars, assuming that the driving force causing the components to approach each other is their magnetic stellar wind. This scenario enables us to estimate the rate of formation (0.02/year) and lifetime (10⁸ yr) of W UMa stars. We derive a theoretical estimate of the ratio of the number of blue stragglers, N _BS , and of horizontal-branch stars, N _HB , in globular clusters based on the hypothesis that all blue stragglers are the result of component mergers in W UMa contact binaries. This ratio is N _BS /N _HB =0.4, close to the observed value for 62 Galactic globular clusters. We discuss possible reasons for the considerable dispersion of the observed estimates of this ratio for different clusters in our Galaxy.     

Fractionation of Rare-Earth Elements in the Processes of Hydrothermal Ore Formation

The data on the distribution of elements in the Pb–Zn cross-section of the Gatsirovskaya vein (the Upper Zgid deposit, North Ossetia, Russia) have shown that the spectra of rare-earth elements (REEs) changed significantly in the ore samples during the vein formation. The sharp growth of the La_N/Yb_N, La_N/Nd_N, Gd_N/Ho_N, and Gd_N/Yb_N ratios is confined to the vein intervals, where the maximum amount of ore components is deposited. The comparison of the REE spectra of ores to the characteristics of the spectra of the rocks surrounding the vein and the host rocks suggests that the vein material deposited from the solutions in which the REE ratio changed with time. REE fractionation occurred due to the mobilization of components by hydrothermal solutions during their interaction with the Paleozoic host granites.     

Shear wave velocity as function of cone penetration resistance and grain size for Holocene-age uncemented soils: a new perspective

For feasibility studies and preliminary design estimates, field measurements of shear wave velocity, V _s, may not be economically adequate and empirical correlations between V _s and more available penetration measurements such as cone penetration test, CPT, data turn out to be potentially valuable at least for initial evaluation of the small-strain stiffness of soils. These types of correlations between geophysical (Vs) and geotechnical (N-SPT, q _c-CPT) measurements are also of utmost importance where a great precision in the calculation of the deposit response is required such as in liquefaction evaluation or earthquake ground response analyses. In this study, the stress-normalized shear wave velocity V _s1 (in m/s) is defined as statistical functions of the normalized dimensionless resistance, Q _tn-CPT, and the mean effective diameter, D ₅₀ (in mm), using a data set of different uncemented soils of Holocene age accumulated at various sites in North America, Europe, and Asia. The V _s1–Q _tn data exhibit different trends with respect to grain sizes. For soils with mean grain size (D ₅₀) < 0.2 mm, the V _s1/Q _tn ^0.25 ratio undergoes a significant reduction with the increase in D ₅₀ of the soil. This trend is completely reversed with further increase in D ₅₀ (D ₅₀ > 0.2 mm). These results corroborate earlier results that stressed the use of different CPT-based correlations with different soil types, and those emphasized the need to impose particle-size limits on the validity of the majority of available correlations.     

Pile reinforcement mechanism of soil slopes

Stabilizing piles are widely used as an effective and economic reinforcement approach for slopes. Reasonable designs of pile reinforcement depend on the understanding of reinforcement mechanism of slopes. A series of centrifuge model tests were conducted on the pile-reinforced slopes and corresponding unreinforced slopes under self-weight and vertical loading conditions. The deformation of the slope was measured using image-based analysis and employed to investigate the pile reinforcement mechanism. The test results showed that the piles significantly reduced the deformation and changed the deformation distribution of the slope, and prevented the failure occurred in the unreinforced slope. The pile influence zone was determined according to the inflection points on the distribution curves of horizontal displacement, which comprehensively described the features of the pile–slope interaction and the characteristics of reinforced slopes. The concepts of anti-shear effect and compression effect were proposed to quantitatively describe the restriction features of the piles on the deformation of the slope, namely the reduction in the shear deformation and the increase in the compression deformation, respectively. The pile reinforcement effect mainly occurred in the pile influence zone and decreased with increasing distance from the piles. There was a dominated compression effect in the vicinities of the piles. The compression effect developed upwards in the slope with a transmission to the anti-shear effect. The anti-shear effect became significantly dominated near the slip surface and prevented the failure that occurred in the unreinforced slope.     

Side-by-Side Correlation of Texas Cone Penetration and Standard Penetration Test Blowcount Values

This paper presents side-by-side comparisons of blowcount values for the Texas cone penetration (TCP) test and the standard penetration test (SPT). The comparisons yielded statistically-significant regression models for both coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils. Consistent with expected trends and published data, the TCP–SPT relationship is nonlinear, with weak to fair correlation strength (R² = 23–44%). For TCP blowcounts (N_{60, TCP}) varying from 25 to 200 blows/30 cm (1 ft), corresponding SPT blowcounts (N_{60, SPT}) are typically 30–60% lower than N_{60, TCP} in fine-grained soils. Likewise, corresponding N_{60, SPT} blowcounts are 10–70% lower than N_{60, TCP} in coarse-grained soils, all other things being equal. Comparative data were obtained from published sources and from project-specific field research sites used for full-scale deep foundation load tests. The final dataset consisted of 225 test pairs obtained in similar soils and geomaterials, at equivalent depths, with all blowcounts normalized to 30 cm (12 in.) penetration (i.e., blows/30 cm or blows/ft) within the bounds of typical test precision, and corrected to 60% hammer efficiency. The generally weak correlations do not support conversion of N_{60, TCP} to N_{60, SPT} (or vice versa) to compute foundation capacity for final design. But, engineers can certainly get an intuitive feel about site conditions and preliminary foundation capacity by using the correlation equations to translate their knowledge of one test to the other. This study extends previous work by formally comparing and contrasting the similar yet different SPT and TCP test methods in such a way as to make the results useful to users of both tests and to the broader geotechnical engineering community.     

Bearing Capacity of the New Composite Foundation with Discrete Material-Concrete Compound Piles

In order to solve the bulging deformation and fracture at the top of widely used gravel piles in treating ground consolidation, a new, optimized composite foundation form was proposed. The composite foundation was constructed using discrete materials and concrete piles. Additionally, various parameters of this new composite foundation were analyzed, including foundation forms, construction technologies, bearing mechanism and failure mode. By applying cavity expansion theory, the Vesic cavity spreading pressure of the discrete material-concrete pile is solved as a polar axis symmetric problem on the basis of Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion. Then the computing formula for the ultimate bearing capacity of the discrete materials-concrete pile is elicited when the internal friction angle of soil in the piles is φ = 0 and φ ≠ 0. Finally, the ultimate bearing capacity value of the composite foundation is acquired through analytic calculation and numerical simulation. Finally, it is found that the calculation result is 14.4% lower than that of the simulated result, which is within the acceptable accuracy range and therefore proves the accuracy of the analytic calculation method for bearing capacity of the new composite foundation.     

Experimental Investigation on the Bearing Capacity of Stone Columns with Granular Blankets

Using stone columns is an efficient method to increase the bearing capacity of soft soils. This has led to an increased interest in further developing and improving the method. In addition, granular blankets are used to increase the bearing capacity of the stone columns. In this research, the bearing capacity of stone columns, granular blankets, and a combination of both methods in reinforced and unreinforced modes was examined using large-scale laboratory tests. A scale factor of 1–10 is used for the geometry of the models, and the stone columns are a floating type that are 60 mm in diameter and 350 mm in length. These columns are either reinforced with vertical encasement of a geotextile or they are unreinforced. The granular blankets are either reinforced by using a biaxial geogrid or they are unreinforced with 40 and 75 mm thicknesses. In general, 16 large experimental tests have been carried out. Results indicate that using all these variations (granular blankets, stone columns, and a combination of both) improves bearing capacity. Using geogrid as the reinforcement of granular blankets and geotextile as stone-column encasement increases the efficiency of granular blankets and stone columns significantly. The maximum bearing capacity was obtained when reinforced granular blankets and reinforced stone columns were combined. The stress-concentration ratio and bearing capacity increased as geotextile encasement was used in the stone columns.     

New models to predict rock failure by linking the volume dilatant point with the peak stress point

The rock mass failure process can be divided into several distinct deformation stages: the compaction stage, elastic stage, stable failure stage, accelerated failure stage, and post-peak stage. Although each stage has been well studied, the relationship among the stages has not been established. Here, we establish two models which are the Strain model Q and Energy density model S by using the renormalization group theory and investigate the mechanical relationship between the volume dilatant point and peak stress point on the rock stress-strain curve. Our models show that the strain ratio (ε _f /ε _c ) and energy ratio (E _f /E _c ) at the volume dilatant point and peak stress point are solely functions of the shape parameter m. To verify our models, we further studied the failure process of rock specimens through several uniaxial compression experiments and found that the relationship between ε _f /ε _c or E _f /E _c and m shares a notably similar pattern to that from our theoretical model. However, the ε _f /ε _c and E _f /E _c values in our experiments are slightly smaller than those predicted by the models. In brief, we demonstrate that our models can be used to predict the failure process of the laboratory-scale hard brittle rock samples.     

Seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip footings

Seismic bearing capacity of shallow strip footings in soil has been obtained in the form of pseudo-static seismic bearing capacity factors N_cd, N_qd and N_d, denoting the cohesion, surcharge and unit weight components, respectively, by an extensive numerical iteration technique. Limit equilibrium method of analysis with composite failure surface is assumed. The validity of the principle of superposition is examined. Effects of both the horizontal and vertical seismic acceleration coefficients have been found to always reduce the ultimate bearing capacity significantly. Results obtained by the present method of analysis are compared with the available results and are found to be the least in the seismic case.     

Development of Analytical Models to Estimate Pile Setup in Cohesive Soils Based on FE Numerical Analyses

This paper presents the numerical simulation of pile installation and the subsequent increase in the pile capacity over time (or setup) after installation that was performed using the finite element software Abaqus. In the first part, pile installation and the following load tests were simulated numerically using the volumetric cavity expansion concept. The anisotropic modified Cam-Clay and Dracker–Prager models were adopted in the FE model to describe the behavior of the clayey and sandy soils, respectively. The proposed FE model proposed was successfully validated through simulating two full-scale instrumented driven pile case studies. In the second part, over 100 different actual properties of individual soil layers distracted from literature were used in the finite element analysis to conduct parametric study and to evaluate the effect of different soil properties on the pile setup behavior. The setup factor A was targeted here to describe the pile setup as a function of time after the end of driving. The selected soil properties in this study to evaluate the setup factor A include: soil plasticity index (PI), undrained shear strength (S _u ), vertical coefficient of consolidation (C _v ), sensitivity ratio (S _r ), and over-consolidation ratio (OCR). The predicted setup factor showed direct proportion with the PI and S _r and inverse relation with S _u , C _v and OCR. These soil properties were selected as independent variables, and nonlinear multivariable regression analysis was performed using Gauss–Newton algorithm to develop appropriate regression models for A. Best models were selected among all based on level of errors of prediction, which were validated with additional nineteen different site information available in the literature. The results indicated that the developed model is able to predict the setup behavior for individual cohesive soil layers, especially for values of setup factor greater than 0.10, which is the most expectable case in nature.     

Development of a technique for IR spectroscopic determination of nitrogen content and aggregation degree in diamond crystals

A technique for IR spectroscopic determination of the total nitrogen content N _S in the form of A-and B ₁-defects is suggested. It provides for the computer processing and decomposition of IR spectra into constituent bands, calculation of the total absorption band area S _N and individual areas S _A and S _B1 and their normalization with respect to the total area of the diamond intrinsic absorption S ₀, with the normalization coefficients K _S , K _A , and K _B1 being calculated. Based on the analysis of the IR spectra of 60 octahedral diamond crystals from the Mir and Yubileinaya pipes (Sakha-Yakutiya), the empirical functions N _S = 911.85 K _S ^0.9919 ppm (R ² = 0.9859), N _A = 1185.6 K _A ^1.1511 ppm (R ² = 0.8703), and N _B1 = 911.85 K _S ^0.9919 ? 1185.6 K _A ^1.1511 ppm have been defined.