STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRBORNE ELECTROMAGNETIC SIGNATURES OF DIFFERENT CONDUCTOR GROUPS IN TROPICAL TERRAIN OF KARNATAKA,INDIA*

AEM (airborne electromagnetic) anomalies caused by massive sulphide conductors and superficial conductors can be recognized with a statistical method, as shown by an analysis of Input AEM data from Karnataka State. The weathering in the survey area is of tropical type. Parameters, such as various amplitude ratios and time parameters (inverse of decay rate) for exponential and power-law decay were analyzed for sulphide bodies, conducting soil, superficial conductors, and cultural conductors. Time parameters τ₁ (exponential decay) is defined as ratio of time differences between the third and fourth channel to the logarithmic value of the relative amplitude of the two channels. Time parameter K₁ (power-law decay) is defined as ratio of the difference of the logarithmic values of the delay times of the third and fourth channels to the logarithmic value of the relative amplitude of the two channels. The two parameters have been useful in recognizing sulphide conductors. Also the first channel Input amplitude and logarithmic plot of the transients appear to be helpful in conductor identification. Channel ratios seem to be the least effective parameters of conductor identification. In the area studied both power-law and the conventional exponential decay were found equally suitable for approximating Input AEM transients.     

Automated trend reinforcement of aeromagnetic data

Aeromagnetic maps poorly represent lineaments that are at acute angles to the flight-line direction. Commonly used gridding algorithms cannot cope with local trends, magnetic anomalies at an angle with the main trend of the map, and tend to generate closed contours around the flight lines. By introducing some a priori information, it is possible to add extra data between the flight lines, i.e. trend lines, to reinforce local trends. The proposed automated technique is based on a nearest neighbour search of the maxima and minima in the aeromagnetic map. The resulting map is more realistic and derived maps, such as vertical gradients and analytical signal maps, are greatly improved. Moreover, this automated procedure is user independent and easy to implement. The technique is demonstrated on aeromagnetic data from the Kirkland Lake region, in north-eastern Ontario, Canada.     

Estimating magnetic dike parameters using a non‐linear constrained inversion technique: an example from the Särna area,west central Sweden

In this paper, we describe a non‐linear constrained inversion technique for 2D interpretation of high resolution magnetic field data along flight lines using a simple dike model. We first estimate the strike direction of a quasi 2D structure based on the eigenvector corresponding to the minimum eigenvalue of the pseudogravity gradient tensor derived from gridded, low‐pass filtered magnetic field anomalies, assuming that the magnetization direction is known. Then the measured magnetic field can be transformed into the strike coordinate system and all magnetic dike parameters – horizontal position, depth to the top, dip angle, width and susceptibility contrast – can be estimated by non‐linear least squares inversion of the high resolution magnetic field data along the flight lines. We use the Levenberg‐Marquardt algorithm together with the trust‐region‐reflective method enabling users to define inequality constraints on model parameters such that the estimated parameters are always in a trust region. Assuming that the maximum of the calculated g_zz (vertical gradient of the pseudogravity field) is approximately located above the causative body, data points enclosed by a window, along the profile, centred at the maximum of g_zz are used in the inversion scheme for estimating the dike parameters. The size of the window is increased until it exceeds a predefined limit. Then the solution corresponding to the minimum data fit error is chosen as the most reliable one. Using synthetic data we study the effect of random noise and interfering sources on the estimated models and we apply our method to a new aeromagnetic data set from the Särna area, west central Sweden including constraints from laboratory measurements on rock samples from the area.     

The bedrock electrical conductivity map of the UK

Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) surveys, when regionally extensive, may sample a wide-range of geological formations. The majority of AEM surveys can provide estimates of apparent (half-space) conductivity and such derived data provide a mapping capability. Depth discrimination of the geophysical mapping information is controlled by the bandwidth of each particular system. The objective of this study is to assess the geological information contained in accumulated frequency-domain AEM survey data from the UK where existing geological mapping can be considered well-established. The methodology adopted involves a simple GIS-based, spatial join of AEM and geological databases. A lithology-based classification of bedrock is used to provide an inherent association with the petrophysical rock parameters controlling bulk conductivity. At a scale of 1:625k, the UK digital bedrock geological lexicon comprises just 86 lithological classifications compared with 244 standard lithostratigraphic assignments. The lowest common AEM survey frequency of 3 kHz is found to provide an 87% coverage (by area) of the UK formations. The conductivities of the unsampled classes have been assigned on the basis of inherent lithological associations between formations. The statistical analysis conducted uses over 8 M conductivity estimates and provides a new UK national scale digital map of near-surface bedrock conductivity. The new baseline map, formed from central moments of the statistical distributions, allows assessments/interpretations of data exhibiting departures from the norm. The digital conductivity map developed here is believed to be the first such UK geophysical map compilation for over 75 years. The methodology described can also be applied to many existing AEM data sets.     

Modelling of local velocity anomalies: a cookbook

The determination of small-scale velocity anomalies (from tens to a few hundreds of metres) is a major problem in seismic exploration. The impact of such anomalies on a structural interpretation can be dramatic and conventional techniques such as tomographic inversion or migration velocity analysis are powerless to resolve the ambiguity between structural and velocity origins of anomalies. We propose an alternative approach based on stochastic modelling of numerous anomalies until a set of models is found which can explain the real data. This technique attempts to include as much a priori geological information as possible. It aims at providing the interpreter with a set of velocity anomalies which could possibly be responsible for the structural response. The interpreter can then choose one or several preferred models and pursue a more sophisticated analysis. The class of retained models are all equivalent in terms of data and therefore represent the uncertainty in the model space. The procedure emulates the real processing sequence using a simplified scheme. Essentially, the technique consists of five steps: 1 Interpretation of a structural anomaly in terms of a velocity anomaly with its possible variations in terms of position, size and amplitude. 2 Drawing a model by choosing the parameters of the anomaly within the acceptable range. 3 Modelling the traveltimes in this model and producing the imaging of the reflected interface. 4 Comparing the synthetic data with the real data and keeping the model if it lies within the data uncertainty range. 5 Iterate from step 2. In order to avoid the high computational cost inherent in using statistical determinations, simplistic assumptions have been made: ? The anomaly is embedded in a homogeneous medium: we assume that the refraction and the time shift due to the anomaly have a first-order effect compared with ray bending in the intermediate layers. ? We model only the zero-offset rays and therefore we restrict ourselves to structural problems. ? We simulate time migration and so address only models of limited structural complexity. These approximations are justified in a synthetic model which includes strong lateral velocity variations, by comparing the result of a full processing sequence (prestack modelling, stack and depth migration) with the simplified processing. This model is then used in a blind test on the inversion scheme.     

VELOCITY-STACK PROCESSING1

A conventional velocity-stack gather consists of constant-velocity CMP-stacked traces. It emphasizes the energy associated with the events that follow hyperbolic traveltime trajectories in the CMP gather. Amplitudes along a hyperbola on a CMP gather ideally map onto a point on a velocity-stack gather. Because a CMP gather only includes a cable-length portion of a hyperbolic traveltime trajectory, this mapping is not exact. The finite cable length, discrete sampling along the offset axis and the closeness of hyperbolic summation paths at near-offsets cause smearing of the stacked amplitudes along the velocity axis. Unless this smearing is removed, inverse mapping from velocity space (the plane of stacking velocity versus two-way zero-offset time) back to offset space (the plane of offset versus two-way traveltime) does not reproduce the amplitudes in the original CMP gather. The gather resulting from the inverse mapping can be considered as the model CMP gather that contains only the hyperbolic events from the actual CMP gather. A least-squares minimization of the energy contained in the difference between the actual CMP gather and the model CMP gather removes smearing of amplitudes on the velocity-stack gather and increases velocity resolution. A practical application of this procedure is in separation of multiples from primaries. A method is described to obtain proper velocity-stack gathers with reduced amplitude smearing. The method involves a t²-stretching in the offset space. This stretching maps reflection amplitudes along hyperbolic moveout curves to those along parabolic moveout curves. The CMP gather is Fourier transformed along the stretched axis. Each Fourier component is then used in the least-squares minimization to compute the corresponding Fourier component of the proper velocity-stack gather. Finally, inverse transforming and undoing the stretching yield the proper velocity-stack gather, which can then be inverse mapped back to the offset space. During this inverse mapping, multiples, primaries or all of the hyperbolic events can be modelled. An application of velocity-stack processing to multiple suppression is demonstrated with a field data example.     

3D modelling of near-surface, environmental effects on AEM data

This study considers the three-dimensional (3D) modelling of compact, at-surface conductive bodies on frequency domain airborne electromagnetic (AEM) survey data. The context is the use of AEM data for environmental and land quality applications. The 3D structures encountered are typically conductive, of limited thickness (<20 m) and form ‘point’ source locations carrying potential environmental risk. The scale of such bodies may generate single-profile, ‘bulls-eye’ anomalies. In attempts to recover geological information, such anomalies may be considered to represent noise. In environmental AEM, the correct interpretation of such features is important. The study uses a combination of theoretical models and trial-fixed-wing survey data obtained in populated areas of the UK. Scale issues are discussed in terms of the volumetric footprints of the induced electric field generated by systems flown at both low and high elevation. One of the primary uses of AEM survey data lies in the assessment of conductivity maps. These are typically obtained using one-dimensional (1D) conductivity models at individual measurement points. In order to investigate the limitations of this approach, 3D modelling of conductive structures with dimensions less than 350×350 m and thicknesses extending to 20 m has been carried out. A 1D half space inversion of the data obtained at each frequency is then used to assess the behaviour of the spatial information. The results demonstrate that half space conductivity values obtained over compact 3D targets generally provide only apparent conductivity results. For thin, at-surface bodies, conductivity values are biased to lower values than the true conductivity except at high frequency. The spatial perturbation to both coupling ratios and 1D conductivity models can be laterally extensive. The results from 3D modelling indicate that the use of horizontal derivatives applied to the conductivity models offers enhanced edge detection. The practical application of such derivatives to both regional- and local-scale survey data is presented.. The special case of a near-surface, metallic pipeline has been modelled. The problem constitutes an inductive limit (current gathering) response in which the perturbation is largely confined to the in-phase coupling ratios. The main perturbations, in data and conductivity models, are within about 40 m of each side of the pipeline. The maximum perturbation to the conductivity model is only a factor of 1.5 above background. Detailed survey data across a former compact landfill (about 100×100 m) are used to compare the model behaviour predicted by the 3D modelling with survey results. The survey, conducted at two separate altitudes, provides a demonstration of 3D effects on 1D survey models as a function of frequency and elevation. Although the nature of the landfill materials and their location are not known precisely, the mapping information appears realistic.     

中国大陆科学钻探孔区的数字三分量反射地震调查

本文将简要介绍在大陆科学钻探孔区进行数字三分量地震勘探试验数据采集处理技术,以及取得的初步成果. 鉴于结晶岩地区波场的复杂性,在剖面调查之前要先进行波场特征调查,才能确定三分量地震调查观测系统采集参数.数据处理中与水平分量处理有关的三个困难环节包括静校正、速度分析与动校叠加,必须有所创新.在大陆科学钻探工程中,三分量数字地震调查之所以放在终孔后才进行,主要是因为三分量地震解释要以钻孔资料和VSP成果为基础.如果没有岩芯物性测定资料或VSP纵横波速度计算曲线,横波速度剖面模式就难以建立,水平分量数据处理和解释就难以进行.与单分量地震调查相比,水平分量采集处理提供了转换波信息,可反映独特的很有意义的地质信息.在三分量数字地震调查X分量深度叠加剖面左半边深度2600～3400 m区段出现密集的水平反射层,与Z分量反射剖面和变质岩片倾向不一致.对比主孔气体异常曲线可知,这些水平反射是地层中流体含量升高的反映.     

Seismic anomalies in the aftershock sequence of November 16, 2000, in Papua New Guinea

The study of seismic anomalies, related both to the temporal trend of aftershock sequences and to the temporal series of mainshocks, is important for an understanding of the physical processes relating to the existence and the characteristics of seismic precursors. The purpose of this work is to highlight some methodological aspects related to the observation of possible anomalies in the temporal decay of an aftershock sequence. It is realized by means of several parameters. We focused our work on an analysis of the Papua New Guinea seismic sequence that occurred on November 16, 2000. The magnitude of the mainshock is M = 8.2. The observed temporal series of shocks per day can be considered as a sum of a deterministic contribution and a stochastic contribution. If the decay can be modeled as a nonstationary Poisson process where the intensity function is equal to n(t) = K(t + c)^−p + K ₁, the number of aftershocks in a small time interval Δt is the mean value n(t)Δt, with a standard deviation σ = √n(t)Δt. We observe that there are some variations in seismicity that can be considered as seismic anomalies before the occurrence of a large aftershock. The data, checked according to completeness criteria, come from the website of the USGS NEIC data bank (). The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

A Best-Estimate Approach for Determining Self-potential Parameters Related to Simple Geometric Shaped Structures

A new approach is proposed in order to interpret field self-potential (SP) anomalies related to simple geometric-shaped models such as sphere, horizontal cylinder, and vertical cylinder. This approach is mainly based on solving a set of algebraic linear equations, and directed towards the best estimate of the three model parameters, e.g., electric dipole moment, depth, and polarization angle. Its utility and validity are demonstrated through studying and analyzing synthetic self-potential anomalies obtained by using simulated data generated from a known model and a statistical distribution with different random errors components. Being theoretically tested and proven, this approach has been consequently applied on two real field self-potential anomalies taken from Colorado and Turkey. A comparable and acceptable agreement is obtained between the results derived by the new proposed method and those deduced by other interpretation methods. Moreover, the depth obtained by such an approach is found to be very close to that obtained by drilling information.     

DAMPED LEAST-SQUARES INVERSION OF TIME-DOMAIN AIRBORNE EM DATA BASED ON SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION1

Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) methods are increasingly being used as tools of geological mapping, groundwater exploration and prospecting for coal and lignite. In such applications, quantitative interpretation is commonly based on the layered-earth model. A new approach, a damped least-squares inversion with singular value decomposition, is proposed for interpretation of time-domain, towed-bird AEM data. Studies using theoretical and field AEM data indicate that inversion techniques are dependable and provide fast converging solutions. An analysis has been made of the accuracy of model parameter determination, which depends on resistivity and thickness distribution. In the common case of conductive overburden, upper-layer resistivity and thickness are usually well determined, although situations exist where their separation becomes difficult. In the case of a resistive layer overlying a conductive basement, the layer thickness is the best-determined parameter. In both cases, estimates of basement resistivity are the least reliable. Field data obtained with the Chinese-made M-l AEM system in Dongling, Anhui Province, China, were processed using the described inversion algorithm. The survey area comprised fluvial Cenozoic clays and weathered Mesozoic sediments. Inversion of AEM data resulted in accurate depth-to-bedrock sections and realistic estimates of the resistivities of overburden and bedrock which agree with the results of drilling and resistivity sounding.     

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CURRENT SOURCE OVER AN INHOMOGENEOUS ANISOTROPIC EARTH*

A mathematical expression for potential of a direct current point source in an inhomoge-neous anisotropic earth is derived. The coefficient of anisotropy is given by f= (σ_r/σ_z), where σ_r and σ_z are the conductivities parallel and perpendicular to the bedding plane. It is assumed that σ_z varies with depth, whereas σ_r varies transversely. This potential may be useful in interpretation of geoelectrical data in specified geological situations. Master curves for Wenner and Schlumberger configurations are presented     

CONDUCTING SPHERE IN ELECTROMAGNETIC INPUT FIELD*

A frequency-domain analysis is outlined for a conducting sphere in a uniform Input field: inequispaced alternating half-sine wave pulses. The Barringer Input air-borne electromagnetic exploration system uses such source fields. Theoretical profiles of Hρ(t), the horizontal magnetic component over the sphere from different elevations and for various conductivity and geometrical factors are presented. Based on these results some useful features such as penetration and detectibility are discussed.     

Resolution of airborne VLF data

The interpretation of airborne VLF data represents an important aspect of geophysical mapping of the upper few hundred meters of the Earth's crust, especially in areas with crystalline rocks. We have examined the ability of the single frequency VLF method to provide quantitative subsurface resistivity information using two generic models and standard airborne parameters with a flight altitude of 70 m and a frequency of 16 kHz. The models are long thin conductor (10 m thick, 10 Ω m resistivity and 1 km long) and a wider buried conductive dike (100 Ω m resistivity and 500 m wide). Using standard regularized inversion it turned out that for both models the conductivity of the conductors are underestimated and the vertical resolution is rather poor. The lateral positions of the minimum of the resistivity distributions coincide well with the true positions of the shallow conductors. For deeper conductors the position of the minimum resistivity moves from the edges of the conductor into the conductor. The depth to the minimum of the resistivity anomalies correlates well with the true depth to the top of the conductors although the latter is always smaller than the former.Interpretation of field airborne data collected at 70 m flight height resolved both small scale and large scale near surface conductors (conductance ∼1 S). Deeper conductors show up in the VLF data as very long wavelength anomalies that are particularly powerful in delineating the lateral boundaries of the conductors. Many of the VLF anomalies in the Stockholm area are dominated by these deep conductor responses with some near surface conductors superimposed. The deep conductors often follow topographic lows coinciding with metasediments. We interpret the frequent absence of near surface responses at 70 m flight height as a result of weak coupling between the primary VLF wave and the small scale (in all three dimensions) near-surface conductors.Radio magnetotelluric (RMT) ground measurements were carried out along a short profile coinciding with part of an airborne profile. Using data at 9 frequencies (14–250 kHz) small scale conductors in the upper few tens of meters, not identified from the airborne data, could be well resolved. Large scale deeper conductors could be identified by both methods at nearly the same positions.     

时间域航空电磁扩散特征和成像深度研究

为了研究时间域航空电磁系统扩散特征,基于连续性边界条件将电磁场向下延拓得到地下介质中各点处的频率域响应,通过傅里叶变换将其变换到时间域.计算阶跃波形发射时垂直磁偶极子和水平磁偶极子在均匀半空间介质和两层介质中产生的电磁场,通过电流密度矢量图和随时间变化的电流密度等值线展示电磁场在地下介质中的扩散过程.电磁场在地下的扩散受电阻率结构的影响.在良导地区电磁场扩散慢、衰减快,而在高阻地区电磁场扩散快、衰减慢.垂直磁偶极子在地下产生的感应电流形成一个电流环随时间向下、向外扩散.水平磁偶极子在地下产生的感应电流形成两个互相叠加的电流环.时间域电磁场扩散代表着真正物理意义上的电磁扩散,因为它展示了地下电磁场空间分布随时间的变化和场强的衰减.基于对感应电流环的研究,我们探究了扩散深度和时间域航空电磁数据成像深度的关系.时间域电磁场扩散规律的研究不仅加深了对电磁扩散特征的理解,更有助于提高航空电磁数据解释水平.     

基于异常线圈的时间域AEM系统测试和标定方法研究

为了检验和测试时间域航空电磁系统的测量精度和有效性,采用地面铺设闭合的异常线圈模拟地下有限导体的方法,将异常线圈的电磁响应理论值与系统实测数据进行拟合分析,来确定系统误差和飞行几何参数误差.在计算异常线圈电磁响应的基础上,研究了衰减曲线、剖面曲线与线圈的电性、几何参数关系,设计了野外测试实验方案.在长春市大鹅岛附近,采用吊车进行了系统测试,测试结果表明:单点实测数据的平均绝对误差为0.48 mV,系统相对误差小于1%,飞行高度误差为0.4 m、水平偏移误差为0.2 m.基于异常线圈进行时间域航空电磁系统的测试和标定,是一种准确、快速、经济可行的方法,具有野外施工便捷、参数调整灵活等特点,适用于任何时间域电磁测量系统的检测.     

APPLICATION OF GEOELECTRIC METHODS USING BURIED ELECTRODES IN EXPLORATION AND MINING1

Various geoelectric methods which have been developed and applied in the last 10–20 years in ELGI are discussed. These methods which use buried electrodes are: hole-to-surface gradient mapping to detect bauxite deposits in sinkholes below a resistive screening layer; in-mine gradient profiling to map the basement topography below galleries; and the hole-to-surface version of geoelectric layer tracing to find outcrops of mineralized zones penetrated by drillings. Data processing procedures have been developed on the basis of common concepts and hypotheses to link theoretical models with geological structures. The objects investigated are determined as the difference between the theoretical models and geological structures. The predominant part of the real electric field measured above the geological structures is the theoretical field related to the theoretical model. The effects of the objects (the anomaly) are superposed on the theoretical field but their extent is small compared with the values of the latter. The theoretical field and the anomaly depend strongly on the separation from the sources. For this reason the anomalies are difficult to recognize. Therefore the ratio of the theoretical field to the measured one is computed, since σ_a, the apparent specific conductivity, is proportional to this ratio. It is demonstrated that since the changes in the σ_a curve depending on the location of the observation point are small, the anomalies can easily be recognized on the curve. The σ_a, curve computed in the above way reflects the objects better than the originally measured electric fields. Examples illustrate the solution of the above-mentioned geological problems by the practical application of adequate geoelectric methods using buried electrodes.     

频率域航空电磁数据的加权横向约束反演

传统的一维反演技术已经被广泛应用于航空电磁数据解释中.然而,利用单点水平层状介质模型模拟地下复杂地电结构有时会遇到困难.突出表现在反演参数的横向不连续性,即使相邻测点的反演结果也会出现突变.本文针对航空电磁直升机吊舱系统可进行密集采样,相邻测点地下电性结构应具有某种程度连续性的特点,研究航空电磁数据横向约束反演理论,并提出参数加权约束方法.首先阐述频率域航空电磁正演和加权横向约束反演理论,着重介绍这种拟二维反演方法的基本原理和实施步骤,以及将该方法成功应用于频率域航空电磁数据反演处理的方法技术.最后,通过对理论和实测数据反演处理,并与传统的一维反演结果进行对比,验证加权横向约束反演方法的有效性.     

Non-Gaussian probability distributions of solar wind fluctuations

The probability distributions of field differences x()=x(t+)-x(t), where the variable x(t) may denote any solar wind scalar field or vector field component at time t, have been calculated from time series of Helios data obtained in 1976 at heliocentric distances near 0.3 AU. It is found that for comparatively long time lag , ranging from a few hours to 1 day, the differences are normally distributed according to a Gaussian. For shorter time lags, of less than ten minutes, significant changes in shape are observed. The distributions are often spikier and narrower than the equivalent Gaussian distribution with the same standard deviation, and they are enhanced for large, reduced for intermediate and enhanced for very small values of x. This result is in accordance with fluid observations and numerical simulations. Hence statistical properties are dominated at small scale by large fluctuation amplitudes that are sparsely distributed, which is direct evidence for spatial intermittency of the fluctuations. This is in agreement with results from earlier analyses of the structure functions of x. The non-Gaussian features are differently developed for the various types of fluctuations. The relevance of these observations to the interpretation and understanding of the nature of solar wind magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence is pointed out, and contact is made with existing theoretical concepts of intermittency in fluid turbulence.