Equitable utilisation and effective protection of sharing transboundary water resources: international rivers of western China

1 Introduction Recently, some important international institutions, like the World Bank (WB) and the Asian Development Bank, have pointed out that there will exist water crises, water conflicts, and even water wars in the 21st century. The equitable utilisation and co-ordinated management of the shared freshwater resources in international watercourses (sharing rivers, lakes, and underground water layers) were particularly emphasised and are turning out to be the international hot point an…     

Research progress of international rivers in China

China possesses over 110 international rivers and lakes, among which 41 are major ones and 15 are of great importance. With the highest concentration of international rivers, the northeast, northwest and southwest regions of China enjoy abundant transboundary resources and pose complicated ecological security issues. Following the 1950s, relevant studies on international rivers fall into three periods: 1) the planned economy period of the 1950s–1980s when border development and basic research were scant; 2) the reform and opening-up period from 1980 to the end of 20th century. Along with the drive of economic globalization and regional cooperation, development of international rivers was thriving, which filled blanks in the research and narrowed gaps with international standards. Relevant studies also provided national and local governments with important scientific grounds for making decisions; 3) since the start of the 21st century, China has integrated its international river studies across sectors and across international borders. Now both government and scientific institutions pay great attention to transboundary environmental issues.     

中国国际河流研究进展

1IntroductionThe increasing momentum of economic globalization and regional geopolitical cooperation no longer stand as the major drivers of a new world order. Resource and environmental diplomacy are now regarded as new elements establishing future international patterns. Transboundary resources and environmental issues in international river basins have attracted increasing global concern and professional attention. The impact of such issues penetrates into national security, international e…     

A review of water resources utilization and protection in Southwest China

Yunnan and Guizhou are two provinces in Southwest China where in recent years drought disasters have occurred due to natural and human factors. This paper reviewed literature and summarized the related achievements of water resources utilization and protection in Yunnan and Guizhou provinces. This included characters and utilization of precipitation, rivers, and karst ground water in the two provinces, and also the various explanations of drought (climate and human factors) and strategies for coping with droughts. Our concluding remarks highlight three lines of future studies: inequalities and equitable use of water distribution, better evaluation systems, and raising awareness through conservation practices.     

地缘安全视角下的中国国际河流水资源开发利用

全球地缘政治竞争回潮与资源环境危机推动国际河流水资源开发利用成为影响国家地缘安全的关键变量。通过对既有文献的梳理,发现国际河流水资源开发利用在“稀缺-冲突”范式下激化流域各国的矛盾,引发的水资源冲突联合域外势力进一步作用于国家地缘安全;在地缘安全视角下,中国国际河流的水资源开发利用经历了从“弱安全化”到“强安全化”再到“去安全化”的演进;水环境治理、水量分配及水开发利益协调是水资源开发利用中的核心议题,涉及的跨境水资源污染、水权分配以及水电开发争议等问题与国家地缘安全密切相关;东北、西北及西南三大国际河流密集区水资源开发利用方式地域分异明显,在差异化的地缘环境下带来多元的地缘安全威胁;最后基于“一带一路”及“人类命运共同体”等背景对中国未来外交提出建议。     

Management of transboundary water resources: lessons from international cooperation for conflict prevention

Tensions over freshwater resources may become more frequent as pressures on water resources grow due to increased demand and variability of rainfall. Conflicts may take place between or within countries or between competing sectoral users. This paper focuses on institutional approaches for enhancing cooperation between countries for sustainable development of transboundary freshwater bodies and contributing basins. It is assumed that instead of being zones of conflict, shared water resources can provide a basis for cooperation and benefit–sharing provided that threats to the international waters are recognized and collaborative structures are created. The paper draws upon experiences gained within the international waters focal area of the Global Environment Facility, the main funding mechanism for countries to support the environmental management of transboundary water resources. Lessons for promoting peaceful cooperation for environmental management, benefit–sharing and sustainable use of transboundary freshwater resources are highlighted through examples from Africa, Central Asia and Latin America. Experience shows the importance of processes that bring together all sectors and actors whose actions affect the transboundary waterbody at regional, national and local levels. The development of a science–based diagnostic analysis is essential to identify the threats to the transboundary ecosystem and to break down the issues into manageable parts with the aim of developing a strategic action programme. Ensuring political commitment that can result in institutional, policy and legal reforms in the countries concerned is the key to sustainable development of the transboundary resource.     

The key indicators of transboundary water apportionment based on international laws and cases

Transboundary water, more competitive utilization and uncertain availability under the globalization trend, the issue of its apportionment which directly impacts national benefits of each riparian state is becoming one of the important topics in the world. Water is scarce in China, the most important upstream state in Asia, and this task has to be thought over in the coming future. Based on ＂International Freshwater Treaties Database＂ （1820-2007） by Oregon State University, and publications and reports on transboundary water utilization and management since 1999, 28 indicators of water apportionment adopted in 49 international treaties and cases in 1864-2002 are divided into 6 types, the spatial and temporal characteristics of the adopted indicators are analyzed in order to find the key indicator（s） of transboundary water apportionment. The major results include： the major adopted indicators, have significant differences among 5 regions/continents, the indicators at rank first and second place in the developed region （North America and Europe） according to the adopted times are ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂, but in the developing region （Asia, Africa and South America）, the ranking order of the above two indicators is reversed; the major adopted indicators in the watersheds with insufficient water are ＂mean annual runoff＂ and ＂keeping minimum water flow＂, the ones in the watersheds with sufficient water are ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂maximum water intake＂; the international treaties signed from the first phase to the fourth phase, the developing process shows a progress of ＂fewer-increasing a lot-decreasing rapidly-equation basically＂, the regional distribution of the treaties shifts mainly from the developed region to the developing one, especially to Asia and Africa; the major adopted indicators shifts from ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1864-1945, to ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂maximum water intake＂ in 1946-1971, then to ＂hydraulic facility operation＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1972-1991, and finally to ＂keeping minimum water flow＂ and ＂mean annual runoff＂ in 1992-2002, the process shows similar a loop. Finally, the key indicator on transboundary water apportionment can be determined as ＂keeping minimum water flow＂.     

我国国际河流的特征及合作开发利用研究

本文在分析我国国际河流的基本特征的基础上,就我国国际河流合作开发利用的意义、优先区域与领域及管理协调机制、资源分配机制进行了初步研究。     

Southwest China and Southeast Asia: towards sustainability through cooperative development and management of international rivers *

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石羊河流域水资源利用和生态环境保护对策

石羊河流域是我各国西北干旱地区的一个重要流域,由于流域水资源的过度开发利用与不合理配置,造成下游地区植被衰败,沙漠化问题十分突出,流域整治和生态环境保护迫在眉睫。本文通过对石羊河流域水资源利用、地下水位下降、土壤盐渍化、植被衰退和土地沙漠化之间的相互作用关系的分析,提出了保证石羊河流域生态用水以防止生态环境劣变和促进流域生态系统良性循环的水资源管理的具体对策建议。     

国际河流水电合作开发投资—效益分配模式及特征

水与能源安全是全球可持续发展最为核心的问题,其在国际河流区尤为复杂和敏感。中国作为亚洲乃至全球最为重要的上游国,国际河流水资源变化、水电开发影响及跨境水安全维护等,虽受关注,但研究基础较为薄弱。判识出1937-2010年全球国际河流水电合作开发的32个案例,综合分析其开发方式,揭示其投资—效益分配模式与特征。结果表明：① 水电合作开发以河段和双边合作开发为主,缺乏流域层面的合作,形成了投资—效益等比分配、平均分配和差异分配三种模式。② 跨境型河流水电合作的投资—效益分配以等比分配为主,上游国通过向下游国提供发电用水分享其发电效益,下游国则通过补偿上游国的方式推动合作;界河（含界河段）的水电合作开发以平均分配为主。③ 不同发展时期的分配模式差异较明显: 1950年代前以平均分配和等比分配为主;1950-1980年代以平均分配为主;1990年代以后,因案例太少,主要分配模式难以确定。④ 经济发展水平相当的合作国家间主要采用平均分配模式;经济发展水平存在差异的国家间则兼顾采用等比分配和差异分配模式,并实施了更多的补偿措施。     

从水的载体功能看西北地区经济发展与水资源配置

从水的载体功能的原理出发,分析了西北水资源的特征,探讨了西北地区经济发展与水资源配置问题及对策。当前西北地区经济发展已造成水资源的高负荷状态,资源开发利用若仍然保持现有的方式和结构,无疑会产生更加严重的生态问题。基于此,分别提出了西北地区水资源高负荷的解决对策,以增加水的承载力,从而维持水的载体功能的基本平衡。     

Current situation, problems and rational utilization of water resources in arid north-western China

From an analysis of the current situation of water resources and its development and utilization in arid areas of north-western China, the authors conclude that some major problems still exist, such as inadequate amounts, unbalanced distribution, serious wastage and a deteriorated water environment. Measures to solve these problems include strengthening management, enhancing scientific and technological levels in the utilization of water resources, and strengthening protection of water resources and the environment. Besides this, the fundamental and important measure is to strengthen studies of water-saving techniques, as discussed in the paper.     

西北干旱区水资源问题研究思考

 气候变化与水资源问题是各国政府部门、学术界和社会公众普遍关注的焦点,也是西北干旱区实现跨越式发展的重要瓶颈之一。在分析前人研究成果基础之上,指出制约西北干旱区社会经济发展和生态安全的关键因素和气候变化对西北干旱区水资源的影响;进而分析西北干旱区气候变化与水资源研究中的热点和难点问题;最后基于西北干旱区水资源研究的重要性和迫切性提出目前亟待解决的研究任务与核心内容,主要包括3个方面：(1)气候变化对西北干旱区水资源形成、转化及未来趋势的影响;(2)气候变化对西北干旱区水循环过程的影响;(3)气候变化对西北干旱区水资源安全的影响。     

基于国际法的跨境水分配关键指标及其特征

基于《国际淡水条约数据库》及1999 年以来相关跨境水资源利用与管理的研究成果,通过综合分析1864-2002 年49 个跨境水分配条约中的6 类28 项分水指标的区域与演进特征,判识跨境水分配的关键指标,结果表明：分水指标在实践中存在着明显的区域差异,在欧美发达地区的分水主要指标首先是维持最小水量,其次是多年平均水量,而亚非及南美洲欠发达地区则反之;少水区河流水分配的主要指标是多年平均水量和维持最小水量指标,而多水区河流则是维持最小水量和最大取用水量指标;从1864-2002 年分水条约签订的4 个历史时期上看,条约数量呈现少-多-较少-持平的变化趋势,条约的区域分布呈现出从欧美地区向亚非地区转移特征;主要分水指标从最早的维持最小水量和多年平均水量指标,演变到维持最小水量和最大取用水量指标,再到水利设施运行和多年平均水量,至最近的维持最小水量和多年平均水量指标,主要指标具有变化往复特点.综合跨境水分配条约中主要指标在不同时期及不同地区应用特征,可确定跨境水分配的关键指标为维持最小水量指标.     

The Mekong River Commission: transboundary water resources planning and regional security

The Mekong River Commission (MRC) was established in 1995 and represents a third chapter in the Mekong Project's organizational history. The MRC's predecessors – the Mekong Committee (1957–78) and the Interim Mekong Committee (1978–95) – operated under difficult circumstances, yet made many contributions to transboundary river basin planning and international diplomacy. The MRC's 2001 Work Programme represents a shift in Mekong basin planning from the era of the Mekong Committee. This shift is largely embodied by a change from a project–oriented focus to an emphasis on better management and preservation of existing resources. The MRC is in a position to help address the related issues of population growth, environmental preservation and regional security. In doing so, the MRC will benefit from the programmes and international collaboration established by its predecessors.     

中国西北五省区水资源利用的协调性分析

水资源协调利用问题是中国西北五省区经济、社会和生态可持续发展的首要问题.采用协同性分析方法和耦合协调度模型,对中国西北陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆五省区水资源利用率和生态用水率之间的区域协同性和耦合协调度进行分析.结果表明:(1)西北五省区的水资源利用率和生态用水率方差齐同,任意两省区之间不具有显著性区域差异,而在五省...     

中南半岛五国水资源分区研究

在全球变化与"一带一路"倡议的背景下,中南半岛水资源及未来社会不同情景下的水资源特征广受关注,但该区域缺乏基础的水资源系统性研究,急需开展相应的工作.本文通过对前人研究的梳理与总结,利用基于GIS的流域地形划分方法对中南半岛水资源进行分区.研究结果表明:①中南半岛水资源区可划分为7个水资源一级区、17个水资源二级区和1...     

支撑新疆经济社会跨越式发展的水资源供需结构调控分析

新疆地处欧亚大陆腹地,水资源总量不足且区域分布相差悬殊,生态环境脆弱,经济系统与生态系统用水的竞争矛盾十分突出.目前,结构性缺水问题已成为经济社会可持续发展的重大制约,对全疆水资源供用结构进行合理调整以支撑经济社会跨越式发展,顺利推进新型工业化、农牧业现代化和新型城镇化,实现长治久安具有重要意义.本文在深刻剖析新疆水资...     

环境保护与国际贸易问题及我国对策探讨

阐述了环境保护与国际贸易的关系，认为二者应统一于可持续发展的宗旨中；分析了在世界保浪潮中蕴育的国际环保法规对发展中国家贸易发展形成的挑战；提出了中国在环境保护与国际贸易地协调中应采取的对策