Numerical simulation of aeolian dusty sand transport in a marginal desert region at the early entrainment stage

Aeolian dusty sand transport in the marginal region of a desert is described numerically from first suspension motion at the early entrainment stage to the unsteady state within a moderate range (1000 m long × 500 m high). A two-dimensional model is built for wind-blown dust flow, and the calculations are carried out using Fluent software. The simulation results describe an integrated picture of aeolian dusty sand transport including uplift, suspension, diffusion, deposition and its space–time concentration. According to the features of a sand–dust storm near the surface, a volume concentration expression of ejection grains is developed as a boundary condition in the simulation approach. The model is verified by comparing results with both experimental data from a wind tunnel and an analytic solution. Uniform dust sizes and R–R distributions are used in the simulation. Gas–solid two-phase flow patterns with these grains are obtained in the downwind space, including the turbulence intensity, gas phase stream functions and solid volume concentration distributions. The influence of wind velocities and grain sizes is analyzed. From the simulation results, spatial distributions of dust volume concentration in the early entrainment stage are described clearly. Different from coarse sands, there is a clear band of uniformly saturated dust concentration in the region directly above the surface.     

Wind tunnel and field calibration of five aeolian sand traps

The efficiency of five aeolian sand samplers was tested via wind tunnel experiments and field measurements. The samplers were: the Big Spring Number Eight (BSNE) sampler, the Modified Wilson and Cooke (MWAC) sampler, the Suspended Sediment Trap (SUSTRA), the Pollet catcher (POLCA), and the saltiphone. In the wind tunnel, the samplers were calibrated against an isokinetic sampler (a modified Sartorius SM 16711 sampler with adjustable flow rate), and this for three sand types (median diameter: 132, 194 and 287 μm) and five wind speeds (ranging from 6.6 to 14.4 m s⁻¹). In the field, seven calibration tests of two weeks each were conducted. The absolute efficiencies of the BSNE, MWAC and POLCA are more or less comparable and vary between 70% and 120%, depending on sediment size and wind speed. For the SUSTRA, the efficiency is somewhat lower for fine sands and for wind speeds above 11 m s⁻¹. Finally, the saltiphone can accurately detect the periods of saltation transport, but in its current version, the instrument is not accurate when measuring the absolute saltation flux. The most recommendable sampler in the test is the MWAC, not only because of its high efficiency, but also because its efficiency is independent of wind speed.     

Control of dust emissions by geomorphic conditions, wind environments and land use in northern China: An examination based on dust storm frequency from 1960 to 2003

The degree to which dust emissions are controlled by geomorphic conditions, wind environments and land use was investigated using the dust storm frequency (DSF) and data from more than 300 meteorological stations throughout northern China. Our analysis showed that most dust emissions originated in gobi deserts that developed in piedmont alluvial fans of the Kunlun, Qilian and Helan mountains. Dust emissions are low from other gobi desert regions, such as the northern Gurbantunggut and eastern Taklimakan, where high vegetation coverage restrained dust emissions or where dust-size particles are not abundant after a long period of strong wind erosion. Sandy deserts with relatively high vegetation coverage or an extensive cover by mobile sands are not a major dust source. Although the highest dust emissions did not appear in regions with the highest wind energy, DSF trends in each region from 1960 to 2003 were closely related to local wind activity. DSF was low in regions with high levels of human activity, where the mean DSF from 1960 to 2003 did not exceed 4 days/year; even from the 1960s to the early 1970s, the period with the greatest DSF, frequency did not exceed 8 days/year, which indicates that extensive land use did not contribute to DSF. The low DSF in these areas might result from the fact that although land use could produce abundant fine soil fractions, vegetation coverage and soil moisture remained higher than in the gobi deserts of arid China, thereby decreasing dust-storm occurrence.     

大气降尘收集方法及相关问题研究

降尘监测是探索大气降尘对环境的影响和生态效应评估不可缺少的手段之一。根据集尘容器内同定降尘介质的不同，目前常用的收集方法分为干法、湿法和玻璃球法3种。在实际监测中，每种方法都有不同的研究者采用，3种方法的收集效率也有一定的差别。研究表明，干法的集尘效率为湿法的73％和玻璃球法的95％；玻璃球法的集尘效率为湿法的77％。3种方法的集尘量之间具有良好的线性关系，可以依此进行数据的转换。不同的收集容器会对集尘效率产生影响，其测量精度也不相同。另外，这3种收集方法不能很好地区别干沉降和湿沉降过程，应该加以改进。因此，采用统一的标准开展大气降尘的合作研究很有必要。     

Characteristics of the Gobi desert and their significance for dust emissions in the Ala Shan Plateau (Central Asia): An experimental study

Using intact samples of Gobi surfaces, we conducted wind tunnel experiments and related analyses to describe the surface characteristics of Gobi deserts and their significance for dust emissions in the Ala Shan Plateau, an area of Central Asia with high dust emissions. Under relatively high wind velocities (22 m s⁻¹), the total sediment transport approached 700 g m⁻², with the fine fractions (<50 μm in diameter) accounting for up to 26 g m⁻². In consecutive experiments, the emission rates decreased greatly due to depletion of erodible particles. In the Ala Shan Plateau, coverage by gravels varied, and aeolian sediment transport increased with increasing gravel cover (to about 30%); above that level, transport decreased. Because gravel cover was less than 30% in most areas, the gravel may not play important role in dust emissions in this region. Although the Gobi surfaces are covered by gravel, high clay contents that may restrain sediment transport. In the Ala Shan Plateau, dust emissions therefore appear to be controlled mainly by the availability of fine particles, which is in turn controlled by their deposition by ephemeral streams, by their creation via physical, salt, and chemical weathering, and by other processes such as aeolian abrasion.     

Eolian transport of salts—A case study in the area of Lake Ebinur (Xinjiang, Northwest China)

In the Ebinur region of Western Dzungaria, strong wind flows from Dzungarian Gate predetermine the widespread development of deflation processes. As a result of human-induced desiccation of Lake Ebinur, a new source of the loose material—the dry lakebed—has formed, which has intensified dust storms in this region. Annual dynamics of the frequency and intensity of dust storms and the amount and chemical composition of salts in the eolian material deposited in the area have been studied. The frequency of dust storms and the intensity of dust and salt deposition regularly decrease with an increase in the distance from the dry lake bottom (playa). The amount of dust deposition ranges from 600 (near the lake) to 70 (100–200 km from the lake) g/m²/a. The amount of salts precipitating with dust is mainly from 14 to 27 g/m²/a; the maximum registered amount of salt deposition is 77 g/m²/a. As shown in our study, the farther from the lake, the higher the portion of sulfate and calcium and the smaller the portion of chloride and sodium ions in the composition of salts.     

Aeolian dust in a saline playa environment, Nevada, U.S.A.

Saline playas in north-western Nevada, U.S.A., remnants of pluvial periods of the Pleistocene, represent a tremendous source of unconsolidated sediments available for aeolian transport. This study investigated the transport of aqueous-soluble solutes in dust from July 1994 through June 1996 along a transect from a barren salt-encrusted playa surface (elevation=1224 m), to a former pluvial lake beach (elevation=1228 m), to a dune-mantled upland (elevation=1248 m). The content of aqueous-soluble solutes in aeolian dust showed a significant (p≤0·05) interaction with dust trap location (playa, beach, dune) and time of collection. Dust collectors on the playa surface generally contained significantly more aqueous-soluble solutes and had greater total flux of solutes than either the beach or the dune locations. The solute content of aeolian dust was usually higher, in some cases several orders of magnitude, than that in the surface 5 cm of soil. Recent changes in playa hydrology may explain this result. Pulses of nitrate-rich dust, synchronous with spring emergence, and other nutrient additions via aeolian dust may have stimulated invasion of dune-mantled uplands by the weedSalsola paulsenii (barb-wire Russian thistle).     

Dust emission by off-road driving: Experiments on 17 arid soil types, Nevada, USA

Field experiments were conducted in Nellis Dunes Recreational Area (Clark County, Nevada, USA) to investigate emission of dust produced by off-road driving. Experiments were carried out with three types of vehicles: 4-wheelers (quads), dirt bikes (motorcycles) and dune buggies, on 17 soil types characteristic for a desert environment. Tests were done at various driving speeds, and emissions were measured for a large number of grain size fractions. This paper reports the results for two size fractions of emissions: PM10 (particles < 10 μm) and PM60 (particles < 60 μm). The latter was considered in this study to be sufficiently representative of the total suspendable fraction (TSP). Off-road driving was found to be a significant source of dust. However, the amounts varied greatly with the type of soil and the characteristics of the top layer. Models predicting emission of dust by off-road driving should thus consider a number of soil parameters and not just one key parameter. Vehicle type and driving speed are additional parameters that affect emission. In general, 4-wheelers produce more dust than dune buggies, and dune buggies, more than dirt bikes. Higher speeds also result in higher emissions. Dust emitted by off-road driving is less coarse than the parent sediment on the road surface. Off-road driving thus results in a progressive coarsening of the top layer. Exceptions to this are silty surfaces with no, or almost no, vegetation. For such surfaces no substantial differences were observed between the grain size distribution of road dust and emitted dust. Typical emission values for off-road driving on dry desert soils are: for sandy areas, 30–40 g km^− 1 (PM10) and 150–250 g km^− 1 (TSP); for silty areas, 100–200 g km^− 1 (PM10) and 600–2000 g km^− 1 (TSP); for drainages, 30–40 g km^− 1 (PM10) and 100–400 g km^− 1 (TSP); and for mixed terrain, 60–100 g km^− 1 (PM10) and 300–800 g km^− 1 (TSP). These values are for the types of vehicles tested in this study and do not refer to cars or trucks, which produce significantly more dust.     

Meteorological causes of Harmattan dust in West Africa

We investigated the temporal dynamics of dust entrainment in the Bodélé Depression, Central Sahara, to better understand the intra-annual variability of aerosol emission in the world's largest dust source. The linkages between dust entrainment and large-scale meteorological factors were examined by correlating several meteorological variables in the Mediterranean and Africa north of the equator with the aerosol concentrations in the Bodélé Depression separately for winter and summer. The methodological tools applied are NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and the aerosol index of the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS-AI), available for 15 years from 1978 to 1993. We found that dust mobilisation during the Harmattan season is highly dependent on air pressure variability in the Mediterranean area. High pressure to the north of the Bodélé intensifies the NE trade winds, leading to an increased entrainment of dust in the Bodélé Depression. In summer, dust mobilization cannot be explained by the large scale meteorological conditions. This highlights the importance of local to regional wind systems linked to the northernmost position of the intertropical convection zone (ITCZ) during this time.     

Influence of soil texture on the binding energies of fine mineral dust particles potentially released by wind erosion

Models of the two aeolian processes (saltation and sandblasting) that lead to emission of fine dust particles (PM20) by wind erosion in arid and semi-arid areas have been combined to form the so-called ‘Dust Production Model’ (DPM). In this model, the size dependent binding energies of PM20 embedded within the wind-erodible loose soil aggregates or in the soil surface itself are key input parameters. Indeed, their values condition at the same time the intensity of emissions and their initial size distribution. Previous comparisons of vertical mass fluxes measured on-field with the model predictions suggest that these energies might be relatively independent of soil texture and also probably composition. Because this would greatly facilitate application of the DPM at regional or global scale, the objective of this work is to check experimentally the veracity of this result. The strategy that has been designed for this has involved selecting four natural soil samples collected in various source areas of the world and covering a wide range of textures and compositions. Then, these soil samples have been used to perform carefully controlled wind erosion simulations in a wind tunnel. During the experiments, which were carried out at different wind speeds with each soil, the horizontal flux (F_h) of saltating soil aggregates has been monitored. At the same time, number concentrations (C_i) of PM20 released by the sandblasting process were recorded in the 6 size classes of an optical size analyzer. Thus, the efficiency of the sandblasting process (defined as the ratio of C_i to F_h) could be determined for each of these size classes. Analysis of the results obtained in similar saltation conditions shows that for the four tested soils, and within the range of contents in clay and other components favoring aggregation (mostly organic matter and carbonates), the influence of soil composition and texture on binding energies of the PM20 particles within soil aggregates is at best a second order effect that can be neglected in large scale modeling of wind erosion by the DPM.     

Holocene rock varnish on the Messak plateau (Libyan Sahara): Chronology of weathering processes

Rock varnish coats subaerially exposed rock surfaces on the Messak Settafet plateau (SE Libya, central Sahara). Holocene surfaces host three microlayers formed by different accretion processes that record a climatic transition from a wet environment to progressively more arid conditions. SEM-EDS and optical investigations shed light on the processes leading to the formation of microlaminae, while direct AMS ¹⁴C dating on microlayers and relative radiocarbon dating on dark varnished Pastoral–Neolithic stone monuments suggest a reliable chronology for varnish development. The innermost microlayer includes illuvial clay and calcite, incorporated during the Early to Middle Holocene (9200 to 5500 uncal. YBP) under wet environmental conditions. The second microlayer is more typical Mn-rich rock varnish, biomineralized during a phase of growing aridity in the Middle Holocene (6000 to 4000 uncal. YBP). The upper microlayer is composed of mostly aeolian dust, and it dates back to the last hyperarid millennia. A positive correlation between varnish chronological development and climate changes in the Sahara reflects also broad regional control on microlamination deposition.     

对黄土高原风尘搬运动力与沉积控制因素的新认识

风尘是地球表层系统的重要组成部分,广泛参与地球系统中不同时空尺度的物理、化学和生物过程,对全球气候和生态环境产生重要的影响。中国北方地区发育了世界最广、最厚的风尘沉积,记录了至少22 Ma以来东亚季风演化和亚洲内陆干旱化历史。半个多世纪以来对风尘沉积的气候记录和黄土高原的成因进行了大量研究并取得了丰硕成果,然而对黄土高原风尘物质沉积过程的认识还存在很多问题。例如,近年来基于物源示踪研究对传统的风尘搬运过程提出了新认识,认为虽然黄土主体是风成的,但以前忽略了河流对于碎屑物质的搬运贡献。我们在前人研究基础上从沉积学角度分析风尘沉积过程,发现青藏高原两期抬升与区域构造运动对粉尘沉积起着不亚于气候变化的重要控制作用;同时从沉积-侵蚀和地貌发育过程探讨风力与流水这两种最常见的外动力方式在黄土沉积和黄土高原发育过程中所起的作用,认为风尘的沉积和黄土高原的形成是侵蚀与搬运沉积作用的长期动态平衡过程,风力和流水在其中所起的作用都不是单一不变的,在不同时期和不同区域有可能会同时充当建设者和破坏者的角色。     

Assessment of aeolian desertification trends from 1975's to 2005's in the watershed of the Longyangxia Reservoir in the upper reaches of China's Yellow River

Global climate change will affect the ecology and environment of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, thus increasing attention is being paid to the aeolian desertification that is occurring in the watershed that supplies the Longyangxia Reservoir in the upper reaches of China's Yellow River. We must assess the aeolian desertification trends before developing a plan to restore the region's degraded eco-environment. In this study, land suffered from aeolian desertification was classified into four levels (slight, moderate, severe, and extremely severe) using a series of indices. Interpretation of Landsat MSS and TM data from 1975's, 1989's, and 2005's was used to establish databases of aeolian desertified land at these three times. We then derived the aeolian desertification trends during the study period by overlaying the consecutive databases, and we analyzed the driving factors responsible for the observed aeolian desertification. The results show a total of 1,721,478.02 ha of aeolian desertified land in 2005's, accounting for 13% of the region's total area. From 1975's to 1989's, the area of aeolian desertified land increased by 229,307.26 ha, which represents a 15% increase compared to the 1975's area; and from 1989's to 2005's, the area of aeolian desertified land decreased by 19,079.87 ha, which represents a 1% decrease compared to the 1989's area. The main driving factors responsible for this increased aeolian desertification were climate factors (high wind velocity and an increase in annual temperature, combined with low precipitation and high evaporation) as well as unsustainable human activities and inappropriate policy measures. A series of key national projects initiated to combat degradation of the study area's eco-environment led to a decrease of aeolian desertified land through obvious restoration of vegetation.     

Palaeovariations in the East-Asian Monsoon Regime Geochemically Recorded in Varved Sediments of Lake Sihailongwan (Northeast China, Jilin Province). Part 1: Hydrological Conditions and Dust Flux

The varved sediments of the dimictic Lake Sihailongwan (Long Gang mountain area, Jilin Province, Northeast China) represent a palaeoclimatic archive which documents the local precipitation frequency during the summer monsoon, and variations in the aeolian flux of dust with their remote sources in the arid and semi-arid regions of inner Asia. Based on a detailed discussion of sediment genesis in Lake SHL, dust flux rates and palaeohydrological conditions were reconstructed on a decadal scale over the past 220 years. The aeolian influx by dry and wet deposition was quantified and characterised in its chemical composition. Photosynthetic production in the lake is positively correlated with the inflow of nutrient-rich groundwater. The groundwater discharge largely reflects the strength of the summer monsoon. Net accumulation rates for biogenic silica were determined for annually laminated sediments from the centre of the U-shaped lake basin based on sediment data. In a Si-balance model of the modern lake, the depositional flux of biogenic silica could be independently quantified on the base of hydrochemical monitoring data. Comparison of the both estimates allowed to asses the focussing of the particle flux in the lake. Though water retention in Lake SHL is rather high (ca. 30 years), changes in the hydrological conditions are sensitively recorded in the sediments because (i) nutrient-rich groundwater discharges into the productive zone of the lake, (ii) a substantial proportion of the total dissolved Si-inventory of the mixed lake (ca. 30%) is annually consumed by diatom growth, and (3) sediment accumulation is substantially focussed towards the flat bottom of the lake basin. The bulk siliciclastic sediment fraction (ca. 75 wt.%) largely originates from influx of dust of remote provenance. In sediment thin-sections, the dry-deposited dust fraction is microscopically identifiable as seasonal silt layer. Aeolian input by wet-deposition shows a distinctly higher variability than the influx of dust by dry-deposition. As diatom production, wet-deposition of dust is positively correlated with the rainfall during the summer monsoon. The inferred positive correlation between rainfall and dust flux during the summer monsoon implies that dust deposition is determined by the out-wash efficiency of mineral particles for a permanent high atmospheric dust concentration over Northeast China in the last 220 years.     

The evolution of Holocene coastal dunefields, Jutland, Denmark: A record of climate change over the past 5000 years

Coastal dunefields have developed on the west coast of Jutland in Denmark over the past 5000 years. The dunefields are situated in a temperate climate zone with frequent high energy wind events. Dunefield development was characterized by repeated periods of transgressive dune formation punctuated by periods of dune stabilization and soil formation. The chronology of dunefield evolution is based on Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating of peaty palaeosols (24 samples) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating of aeolian sand deposits (19 samples). These dates indicate that the completeness of the stratigraphic record varies considerably, but that the timing of aeolian activity events was identical in the dunefields examined here. Initiation of aeolian activity occurred around 2200 BC, 800 BC, AD 100, AD 1050–1200, and between AD 1550 and 1650. Proxy-climate data from bogs in southwestern Sweden suggest that these periods of dunefield activity were initiated during wet/cool summers. Most likely these climatic situations were associated with a more frequent passage of cyclones across Denmark in the summer seasons (increased storminess) causing aeolian sand movement and dune formation. The continued removal of vegetation in Jutland between 4000 BC and AD 1850 allowed the aeolian sand, when first activated, to move more and more easily across the coastal plains; the final phase of aeolian sand movement between AD 1550–1650 and 1900 had catastrophic implications for many coastal inhabitants in the region.     

Rare earth elements of aeolian deposits in Northern China and their implications for determining the provenance of dust storms in Beijing

This paper contributes to a better understanding of the source of dust storms in northern China and the relationship between these sources and other aeolian sediments in this region. Sediment samples in potential source areas were collected from the Hunshandake Sandy Land, Heaven Desert, the loess deposits of the Bashang area, the mountainous basins and valleys north of Beijing and from the Badain Jaran Desert and Hulunbaier Sandy Land (Fig. 1). Dust samples were collected in Beijing during two dust storms in March 2002 and April 2006. The laboratory methods used in this study included measurements of abundance of trace elements, in particular the rare earth elements (REEs), mineral assemblages and grain size. The REE contents, Eu and Ce anomalies show clear differences between various deposits. Provenance is considered to be the key factor influencing REE patterns in the study areas. The REE abundances and patterns indicate that the aeolian sand north of Beijing, such as in the Heaven Desert, is mainly of local origin rather than from desert encroachment from the north. The mineral grains carried in dust storms, however, are highly mixed, and may come partly from local sources but mainly from distant desert regions in western China.     

A field study of wind erosion following a grass fire on the Llano Estacado of North America

Interactions between earth, wind, and fire have always played an important role in the formation and evolution of the level plains of the Llano Estacado of North America. The uppermost sediments of this vast region are aeolian deposits, formed by aeolian deposition into grassland vegetation. Grass cover enhances aeolian deposition by slowing near-surface winds and vegetation secures sediments once they are deposited. The benefits of grass cover, however, are lost when occasional fires remove protective vegetation from fields. After a fire, the underlying soil surface becomes exposed and susceptible to wind erosion until the vegetative cover is re-established. The purpose of this study was to explore the post-fire recovery process by monitoring temporal variations in aeolian transport and changes in the threshold velocity of a burned grass field located in Lubbock County, Texas. A continuous record of wind erosion activity was obtained during a six-month period as the surface recovered from a highly erodible state to a more vegetated and stable surface. Results suggest that the threshold wind speed of the field increased from less than 10 m/s immediately following the fire to above 19 m/s in a three-month period as vegetation naturally recovered.     

The dynamics and characteristics of aeolian dust in dryland Central Asia: possible impacts on human exposure and respiratory health in the Aral Sea basin

The drying up of the Aral Sea has been described as one of the most staggering environmental disasters of the twentieth century. Over the last 40 years over 36 000 km² of the former seabed have been exposed, creating a potentially significant aeolian dust source. It is widely believed, but little researched, that increased dust storm activity in the region has had a major impact on human health. In this paper we report the findings of a study into the link between dust exposure and respiratory health amongst children in the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan located on the southern shore of the Aral Sea. The findings indicate that dust deposition rates across the region are high, with sites located near the former shore of the sea being the worst affected. For these northerly regions the former bed of the Aral Sea is the most likely source of dust. The situation for the rest of the country appears to be far more complex. In these regions it appears that local sources and more distant sources to the south and south-west represent significant sediment providers, particularly in the early summer. Provisional analysis of the respiratory health data suggests that children living in the north of the country, where aeolian dust deposition rates are greater, show a lower frequency of respiratory problems. This inverse relationship requires further investigation, but highlights the complexities of environmental and human health inter-relationships.     

Dust sources in arid and semiarid China and southern Mongolia: Impacts of geomorphological setting and surface materials

Analysis of the geomorphological settings and surface materials in arid and semiarid China and southern Mongolia revealed that the dominant dust sources are ‘Gobi’ deserts and alluvial fans adjacent to Gobi deserts in the piedmonts of the Kunlun, Qilian, Helan, and Gobi Altai mountains. These areas have persistent supplies of dust-sized particles, deposited by intermittent floods from the mountains, and fine materials are also generated by weathering and aeolian processes acting on the coarse fractions of Gobi surfaces. Clear spatial differences in mineral types and contents and in the salt contents of surface materials also strongly affected the intensity of dust emissions. Inconsistencies in monitoring, simulation, and calculation of dust emissions in previous studies of Northern China and Mongolia may have been caused by insufficiently detailed considerations of variations in the geomorphological setting. Where the geomorphological settings in these areas are not considered in sufficient detail, deviations arise in the estimation and prediction of dust using current models. Although the present study did not quantify the persistence and replenishment of dust sources in the study area, our conclusions about the importance of geomorphology can improve future studies of dust sources and controlling factors, improve assessments of the effects of climate change on dust emissions, and facilitate the interpretation of paleoclimate records.     

Aeolian dust transportation and deposition by near-surface winds in arid and semiarid China

Dustfall collections were carried out in April and May 2001 and in March 2002 at six sites in northern China.Our results showed that the total deposition of dust fractions 250 μm in diameter and the deposition of Fe both decreased exponentially with increasing distances from the source areas,and that the half-attenuation distance (HAD) for dust deposition was about 229 km in this re-gion.The HAD was closely related to the grain-size distribution of the dust,and the 15 to 20 μm fractions had the longest HAD.However,the fractions 15 μm in diameter can be easily adsorbed to coarse particles and deposited after only short distances,and the HAD for the fractions 15 to 100 μm in diameter showed a power relationship with the grain-size distribution.The HAD for Fe deposition was 233 km,which was a little longer than that of total dust deposition,which suggests that the Fe content is higher in fine particles than in coarse particles,as previous studies have suggested.In addition,our analysis showed that under the control of current climatic conditions,the coarse fractions in dust derived from northwestern China cannot be transported over long distances,instead,it is transported primarily by near-surface winds (3 km above the ground).The Fe in aeolian dust generated from arid and semiarid regions of China and deposited in the North Pacific region is usually transported by the upper westerlies.