Sensitivity of shear zones in orogenic wedges to surface processes and strain softening

We investigate the internal deformation of orogenic wedges growing by frontal accretion with a two-dimensional numerical model. Our models are limited to crustal deformation and assume a horizontal detachment as observed for various natural orogens (e.g. Alaska and Costa Rica). The model wedges develop as a result of convergence of a brittle sediment layer in front of a strong backstop. We find that our reference model develops in-sequence forward-thrusts which propagate upward from the basal detachment. For this reference model we investigate the sensitivity of shear zone activity to surface processes and strain softening. Model results show that diffusive or slope dependent erosion enhances material transport across the wedge and slows down forward propagation of the deformation front. Frictional strain softening focuses deformation into narrow shear zones and enhances displacement along them. This has also been postulated for natural thrusts such as the Glarus thrust in the Swiss Alps and the Moine thrust in the Scottish Caledonides. A second series of models investigates the effects of regularly spaced weak inclusions within the sediment layer which simulate remnants of previous deformation phases. These inclusions facilitate and focus internal deformation, influence the thrust dip and thrust vergence and enable thrust reactivation in the internal part of the wedge. Our results show that inactive thrusts in the internal part of the wedges may be reactivated in models with diffusive surface processes, strain softening or weak inclusions. Thrust reactivation occurs as models seek to maintain their critical taper angle. First order characteristics of our numerical models agree well with natural orogenic wedges and results from other numerical and analogue models.     

Critical taper behaviour and out‐of‐sequence thrusting on orogenic wedges – an example of the Eastern Alpine Molasse Basin

We demonstrate that increasing erosion during the kinematic evolution of a thrust wedge will lead to out‐of‐sequence thrusting as a result of backwards critical taper movement. In‐sequence thrusting in the Subalpine German Molasse Basin built a critical‐tapered foreland Coulomb thrust wedge. Later, out‐of‐sequence thrusts dissected all but the frontal duplex stacks. The footwall/hangingwall relation visible on seismic data proves the out‐of‐sequence nature of the latest thrusting stage. Establishing a stable drainage system leads to increased erosion in elevated areas of the thrust wedge, resulting in flattening of the critical wedge. In order to keep its predefined angle, the critical wedge repositions and the tip of the taper moves towards the hinterland. Thus, thrusting will also reposition and move towards the hinterland.     

Impact of surface processes on the growth of orogenic wedges: Insights from analog models and case studies

Interaction between surface processes and deep tectonic processes plays a key role in the structural evolution, kinematics and exhumation of rocks in orogenic wedges. The deformation patterns observed in analogue models applied to natural cases of present active or ancient mountain belts reflect several first order processes that result of these interactions. Internal strain partitioning due to mechanical behaviour of a thrust wedge has a strong impact on the vertical component of displacement of tectonic units that in return favour erosion in domains of important uplift. Such strain partitioning is first controlled by tectonic processes, but surface processes exert a strong feed back on wedge dynamics. Indeed, material transfer in thrust wedges not only depends on its internal dynamics, it is also influenced by climate controlled surface processes involving erosion and sedimentation. Effects of erosion are multiple: they allow long term localization of deformed domains, they favour important exhumation above areas of deep underplating and combined with sedimentation in the foreland they contribute to maintain the wedge in a critical state for long time periods. The simple models illustrate well how mountain belts structure, kinematics of tectonic units and exhumation are determined by these complex interactions.     

Modelling the geometry of Coulomb thrust wedges

Internal geometry and detachment of Coulomb thrust wedges is examined in a combined gravity and pressure force field under various boundary conditions and Coulomb parameters. Frontally buttressed sand wedges accreted with narrow tapers above soles with negligible friction. In these models, serial imbricates stepped-up in conjugate sets which operated synchronously or serially. With increases in sole friction, model Coulomb wedges accreted in piggyback style with enhanced taper but narrower spacing of imbricates. In this mode, flat-topped box-fold anticlines nucleated at the frontal tip of a sole thrust prior to the fore-limb failing as a ramp. The initial ramp-thrusts subsequently rotated and steepened to acquire concave-upwards listric geometry. When cohesion was a significant component of strength, and the sand grains interlocked thoroughly, ramp climb during piggyback thrusting occurred through the generation of a stack of backthrusts. The taper of cohesionless sand wedges, which lack any length scale, was consistent with the critical cohesionless Coulomb wedge taper. In contrast, the taper of experimental cohesive sand wedges, which are scale-dependent, was consistent with the theoretical cohesive Coulomb narrow taper, only when the cohesive length scale was l_r ∼ S_r/ϱ_ra_r ≤ 10⁻⁶. This was constrained by comparing geometry of cohesive sand wedges shortened at different body force per unit mass.     

Topography as a major factor in the development of arcuate thrust belts: insights from sandbox experiments

We have used sandbox experiments to investigate and to illustrate the effects of topography upon the development of arcuate thrust belts. In experiments where a sand pack shortened and thickened in front of an advancing rectilinear piston, the geometry of the developing thrust wedge was highly sensitive to variations in surface topography. In the absence of erosion and sedimentation, the surface slope tended to become uniform, as predicted by the theory of critical taper. Under these conditions, the wedge propagated by sequential accretion of new thrust slices. In contrast, where erosion or sedimentation caused the topographic profile to become irregular, thrusts developed out of sequence. For example, erosion throughout a hinterland caused underlying thrusts to remain active and inhibited the development of new thrusts in the foreland. Where initial topography was irregular in plan view, accreting thrusts tended to be arcuate. They were convex towards the foreland, around an initially high area; concave towards the foreland, around an initially low area. Initial plateaux tended to behave rigidly, while arcuate thrust slices accreted to them. Thrust motions were radial with respect to each plateau. Within transfer zones to each side, fault blocks rotated about vertical axes and thrust motions were oblique-slip. At late stages of deformation, the surface slope of the thrust wedge tended towards a uniform value. Initial mountains of conical shape (representing volcanoes) also escaped deformation, except at depth, where they detached. Arcuate thrust slices accreted to front and back. Where a developing thrust wedge was subject to local incision, accreting thrust slices dipped towards surrounding areas of high topography, forming Vs across valleys.Arcuate structural patterns are to be found around the three highest plateaux on Earth (Tibet, Pamirs and Altiplano) and around the Tromen volcanic ridge in the Neuquén Basin of northern Patagonia. We infer that these areas behaved in quasi-rigid fashion, protected as they were by their high topography.     

龙门山褶皱冲断带沿走向差异剥蚀作用 ——砂箱物理模型的启示

褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统普遍存在浅表构造剥蚀-沉积作用及其相关耦合机制,从而具有复杂的三维空间构造变形特征与演化过程.本文基于青藏高原东缘龙门山褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统,通过沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模拟实验和野外地质调查等研究,揭示其沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用,导致了褶皱冲断带大规模抬升剥蚀、断层多期活化与无...     

Detecting the stepwise propagation of the Eastern Sicily thrust belt (Italy): insight from thermal and thermochronological constraints

An extensive dataset of vitrinite reflectance, FTIR parameters on organic matter, illite content in mixed layers illite‐smectite, apatite fission tracks and U‐Th/He dating has been used to reconstruct the stepwise propagation of the Eastern Sicily fold‐and‐thrust belt during Late Palaeogene and Neogene times. The results indicate that the fold‐and‐thrust belt is divisible into two levels of thermal maturity. These levels consist of a less evolved level of thermal maturity that records limited sedimentary burial and minor heating, and a more evolved level of thermal maturity that indicates tectonic burial and exhumation at different times. Deformation and exhumation of shallowly buried units are linked to wedge forward propagation by low‐angle thrusts, whereas the evolution of deeply buried units is associated with tectonic imbrications by duplex formation and steep thrusts. The two tectonic styles alternate during evolution of the fold‐and‐thrust belt under low erosion rates.     

The calculation of horizontal thrust transport using excess area in cross-sections

Existing balancing methods utilizing excess area in cross sections rely heavily on the presence of a perfectly horizontal décollement surface. This is rarely the case in thrust belts, and the commonly observed hindward dip of floor thrusts imparts uplift and internal strain to the thrust wedge during transport. A modified excess area balancing technique is presented to account for hinterland dipping floor thrusts.     

Identification of an underfilled foreland basin system in the Upper Devonian of the Central Pyrenees: implications for the Hercynian orogeny

A foreland basin succession has been identified in the Frasnian of the Central Pyrenees. This succession comprises a carbonate-dominated transgressive system which recorded the cratonward migration of the foreland basin subsidence, and siliciclastic depocenters which recorded the progression of the thrust-fold deformation. The foreland basin system has always been maintained in deep-marine environments, i.e., at an underfilled depositional state. It was associated with a thrust wedge which descended toward a deep-marine hinterland, i.e., with a type of orogenic wedge usually related to subduction zones. The Frasnian foreland basin system differs from the one known in the Carboniferous which evolved to overfilled depositional state and was associated with a thrust wedge rising toward a mountainous hinterland. Consequently, the Hercynian orogeny in the Pyrenees seems to result first, from a Frasnian thrusting controlled by a subduction zone located north of the Pyrenees, and second, from a Carboniferous thrusting controlled by the surrection of a frontal thrust belt in the Pyrenees. The association of underfilled foreland basin systems and hinterland-dipping thrust wedges, as exemplified in the Frasnian of the Pyrenees, can be interpreted as illustrative of the initial stages of thrust-wedge growth in deep-marine settings.     

Benchmarking numerical models of brittle thrust wedges

We report quantitative results from three brittle thrust wedge experiments, comparing numerical results directly with each other and with corresponding analogue results. We first test whether the participating codes reproduce predictions from analytical critical taper theory. Eleven codes pass the stable wedge test, showing negligible internal deformation and maintaining the initial surface slope upon horizontal translation over a frictional interface. Eight codes participated in the unstable wedge test that examines the evolution of a wedge by thrust formation from a subcritical state to the critical taper geometry. The critical taper is recovered, but the models show two deformation modes characterised by either mainly forward dipping thrusts or a series of thrust pop-ups. We speculate that the two modes are caused by differences in effective basal boundary friction related to different algorithms for modelling boundary friction. The third experiment examines stacking of forward thrusts that are translated upward along a backward thrust. The results of the seven codes that run this experiment show variability in deformation style, number of thrusts, thrust dip angles and surface slope. Overall, our experiments show that numerical models run with different numerical techniques can successfully simulate laboratory brittle thrust wedge models at the cm-scale. In more detail, however, we find that it is challenging to reproduce sandbox-type setups numerically, because of frictional boundary conditions and velocity discontinuities. We recommend that future numerical-analogue comparisons use simple boundary conditions and that the numerical Earth Science community defines a plasticity test to resolve the variability in model shear zones.     

Extrusion vs. accretion at the frictional–viscous décollement transition in experimental thrust wedges: the role of convergence velocity

In many cases, thrust wedges accreted at shallow crustal levels show an across‐strike rheological variability along the basal décollement, notably from brittle to ductile behaviour. In this paper, we illustrate the results of sandbox analogue modelling research devoted to studying the influence of convergence velocity on wedge architecture when laterally juxtaposed frictional and viscous materials occur along the basal décollement of accreting thrust wedges. Our results show that slow convergence favours a near symmetrical distribution of thrust vergence within wedge sectors accreted above viscous décollement material, whereas fast convergence favours vergence asymmetry. In particular, at fast convergence rates the hinterlandward extrusion of viscous décollement material at the toe of the frictional wedge is favoured and contributed to accommodate a significant amount of the total contraction. Terra Nova, 18, 241–247, 2006     

Deformation of the Caledonide lithosphere of northwest Scotland

An interpretation of the MOIST seismic reflection profile along the north coast of Scotland has shown the pattern of deep crustal structure across the margin of the Caledonian orogen with the Hebridean cratonic foreland to the northwest. It is proposed that the lower crust of the orogen is characterised by a suite of easterly dipping thrusts that divide it into flakes that were imbricated during lateral compression of the lithosphere. The effects of concomitant and subsequent uplift and erosion led to the removal of the major part of the upper crust within the orogen so that the present crust and Moho are largely the relics of the Caledonian lower crust. As time progressed, the thrust front encroached further into the foreland and cut down to a basal décollement at successively deeper levels. This behaviour is explained as a consequence of the response of the brittle-ductile transition to changing the temperature regime, rock composition and strain rate as the orogeny proceeded. Palinspastic reconstructions of the whole lithosphere illustrate the process. Following the compressional phase of the orogeny, uplift led to initiation of extension and the reactivation of the thrusts as normal listric faults. Rotation of basement blocks gave rise to wedge-shaped sedimentary basins.     

Intrinsic versus extrinsic variability of analogue sand-box experiments – Insights from statistical analysis of repeated accretionary sand wedge experiments

Analogue models are not perfectly reproducible even under controlled boundary conditions which make their interpretation and application not always straight forward. As any scientific experiment they include some random component which can be influenced both by intrinsic (inherent processes) and extrinsic (boundary conditions, material properties) sources. In order to help in the assessment of analogue model results, we discriminate and quantify the intrinsic versus extrinsic variability of results from “sandbox” models of accretionary wedges that were repeated in a controlled environment. The extrinsic source of variability, i.e. the parameter varied is the nature of the décollement (material, friction and thickness). Experiment observables include geometric properties of the faults (lifetime, spacing, dip) as well as wedge geometry (height, slope, length).For each variable we calculated the coefficient of variance (CV) and quantified the variability as a symmetric distribution (Normal, Laplacian) or asymmetric distribution (Gamma) using a Chi squared test (χ²). Observables like fault dip/back thrust dip (CV = 0.6–0.7/0.2–0.6) are less variable and decrease in magnitude with decreasing basal friction. Variables that are time dependent like fault lifetime (CV = 0.19–0.56) and fault spacing (CV = 0.12 – 0.36) have a higher CV consequently affecting the variability of wedge slope (CV = 0.12–0.33). These observables also increase in magnitude with increasing basal friction. As the mechanical complexity of the evolving wedge increases over time so does the CV and asymmetry of the distribution. In addition, we confirm the repeatability of experiments using an ANOVA test. Through the statistical analysis of results from repeated experiments we present a tool to quantify variability and an alternative method to gaining better insights into the dynamic mechanics of deformation in analogue sand wedges.     

The Siwaliks of western Nepal: II. Mechanics of the thrust wedge

Comparison between numerical models and structural data is used for a better understanding of the evolution of the Siwalik thrust belt of western Nepal. The numerical model involves discontinuities within a critical wedge model, a kinematic forward model of serial cross sections, and a linear diffusion algorithm to simulate erosion and sedimentation. In western Nepal, large Piggy-back basins (Duns) are located above thick thrust sheets that involve more than 5500 m of the Neogene Siwalik Group, whereas Piggy-back basin sedimentation is less developed above thinner thrust sheets (4300 m thick). Numerical model results suggest that thrust sheet thickness and extension of wedge-top basins are both related to an increase of the basal décollement dip beneath the duns. The West Dang Transfer zone (WDTZ) is a N–NE trending tectonic lineament that limits the westward extent of the large Piggy-back basins of mid-western Nepal and is linked to a thickening of the Himalayan wedge eastward. The WDTZ also affects the seismotectonics pattern, the geometry of the thrust front, the lateral extent of Lesser Himalayan thrust sheets, and the subsidence of the foreland basin during middle Siwalik sedimentation. Numerical models suggest that the individualisation of the Piggy-back basins at the transition between the middle Siwalik and upper Siwaliks followed the deposition of the middle Siwaliks that induced a geometry of the foreland basin close to the critical taper. As WDTZ induces an E–W thickning of the Himalayan wedge, it could also induce a northward shift of the leading edge of the ductile deformation above the basal detachment in Greater Himalayas of far-western Nepal. Field data locally suggest episodic out-off-sequence thrusting in the frontal thrust belt of western Nepal, whereas numerical results suggests that episodic out-off sequence reactivation could be a general characteristic of the Himalayan wedge evolution often hidden by erosion.     

Controls of surface erosion on the evolution of the Alps: constraints from the stratigraphies of the adjacent foreland basins

 The combined information about the stratigraphies from the foreland basins surrounding the Swiss Alps, exhumation mechanisms and the structural evolution of the Alpine orogenic wedge allow an evaluation of the controls of erosion rates on large-scale Alpine tectonic evolution. Volumetric data from the Molasse Basin and fining-upward trends in the Gonfolite Lombarda indicate that at ∼20 Ma, average erosion rates in the Alps decreased by >50%. It appears that at that time, erosion rates decreased more rapidly than crustal uplift rates. As a result, surface uplift occurred. Because of surface uplift, the drainage pattern of the Alpine hinterland evolved from an across-strike to the present-day along-strike orientation. Furthermore, the decrease of average erosion rates at ∼20 Ma coincides with initiation of a phase of thrusting in the Jura Mountains and the Southern Alpine nappes at ∼50 km distance from the pre-20-Ma thrust front. Coupled erosion-mechanical models of orogens suggest that although rates of crustal convergence decreased between the Oligocene and the present, the reduction of average erosion rates at ∼20 Ma was high enough to have significantly influenced initiation of the state of growth of the Swiss Alps at that time. Received: 8 June 1998 / Accepted: 30 October 1998     

Active tectonics of Himalayan Frontal Fault system

In the Sub-Himalayan zone, the frontal Siwalik range abuts against the alluvial plain with an abrupt physiographic break along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT), defining the present-day tectonic boundary between the Indian plate and the Himalayan orogenic prism. The frontal Siwalik range is characterized by large active anticline structures, which were developed as fault propagation and fault-bend folds in the hanging wall of the HFT. Fault scarps showing surface ruptures and offsets observed in excavated trenches indicate that the HFT is active. South of the HFT, the piedmont zone shows incipient growth of structures, drainage modification, and 2–3 geomorphic depositional surfaces. In the hinterland between the HFT and the MBT, reactivation and out-of-sequence faulting displace Late Quaternary–Holocene sediments. Geodetic measurements across the Himalaya indicate a ~100-km-wide zone, underlain by the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), between the HFT and the main microseismicity belt to north is locked. The bulk of shortening, 15–20 mm/year, is consumed aseismically at mid-crustal depth through ductile by creep. Assuming the wedge model, reactivation of the hinterland faults may represent deformation prior to wedge attaining critical taper. The earthquake surface ruptures, ≥240 km in length, interpreted on the Himalayan mountain front through paleoseismology imply reactivation of the HFT and may suggest foreland propagation of the thrust belt.     

Thermal structure and tectonic evolution of the Scandian orogenic wedge,Scottish Caledonides: integrating geothermometry,deformation temperatures and conceptual kinematic‐thermal models

In the Caledonides of northwest Scotland, two independent geothermometers (Fe‐Mg exchange and quartz c‐axis fabric opening angle) are used to characterize the thermal structure of the lower part of the Scandian (435–420 Ma) orogenic wedge within the Moine, Ben Hope and Naver‐Sgurr Beag thrust sheets. Traced from west (foreland) to east (hinterland), Fe‐Mg exchange thermometry yields peak or near‐peak temperatures ranging from 484 ± 50 °C to 524 ± 50 °C in the immediate hangingwall of the Moine thrust to 601 ± 50 °C in the immediate hangingwall of the Ben Hope thrust, to 630 ± 50 °C in the Naver thrust sheet. Preserved metamorphic facies and textural relationships are consistent with thermometric estimates. Deformation temperatures calculated from quartz c‐axis fabric opening angles across two similar orogen‐perpendicular transects also yield systematic increases (Glen Golly – Ben Klibreck, 520–630 °C; Ullapool‐Contin, 465–632 °C) traced towards the Naver and Sgurr Beag thrusts. In addition, deformation temperatures show a pronounced increase along the leading edge of the Moine thrust sheet moving south towards the Assynt window, which is interpreted to reflect deeper exhumation of the thrust plane above the Assynt footwall imbricate stack. Because temperatures calculated from metamorphic assemblages are within error of the quartz fabric‐derived deformation temperatures that are of demonstrably Scandian age, the metamorphic sequence between the Moine and Naver‐Sgurr Beag thrusts is interpreted to have developed during the Scandian orogeny. Integration of our results with previous 2D thermal‐mechanical studies allows development of new conceptual thermal‐kinematic models of Scandian orogenesis that may be broadly applicable to other collisional systems. Furthermore, it highlights the critical nature of coupling between orogen kinematic and thermal evolution.     

Effect of fluid pressure distribution on the structural evolution of accretionary wedges

Numerical experiments on evolving accretionary wedges usually implement predefined weak basal décollements and constant strength parameters for overlying compressed sequences, although fluid pressure ratio, and therefore brittle strength, can vary strongly in sedimentary basins. A two‐dimensional finite difference model with a visco‐elasto‐plastic rheology is used to investigate the influence of different simplified fluid pressure ratio distributions on the structural evolution of accretionary wedge systems. Results show that a linear increase in fluid pressure ratio towards the base leads to toeward‐verging thrust sheets and underplating of strata, while simulations with a predefined décollement form conjugate shear zones supporting box‐fold‐type frontal accretion. Surface tapers are in agreement with the critical wedge theory, which here is modified for cases of varying fluid pressure ratio. Furthermore, the numerical results resemble findings from natural examples of accretionary wedges.     

Mass movement-induced fold-and-thrust belt structures in unconsolidated sediments in Lake Lucerne (Switzerland)

High-resolution seismic imaging and piston coring in Lake Lucerne, Switzerland, have revealed surprising deformation structures in flat-lying, unconsolidated sediment at the foot of subaqueous slopes. These deformation structures appear beneath wedges of massflow deposits and resemble fold-and-thrust belts with basal décollement surfaces. The deformation is interpreted as the result of gravity spreading induced by loading of the slope-adjacent lake floor during massflow deposition. This study investigated four earthquake-triggered lateral mass-movement deposits in Lake Lucerne affecting four sections of the lake floor with areas ranging from 0·25 to 6·5 km² in area. Up to 6 m thick sediment packages draping the subaqueous slopes slid along the acoustic basement. The resulting failure scars typically lie in water depths of >30 m on slopes characterized by downward steepening and inclinations of >10°. From the base-of-slope to several hundred metres out onto the flat plains, the wedges of massflow deposits overlie deeply (10–20 m) deformed basin-plain sediment characterized by soft sediment fold-and-thrust belts with arcuate strikes and pronounced frontal thrusts. The intensity of deformation decreases towards the more external parts of the massflow wedges. Beyond the frontal thrust, the overridden lake floor remains mostly undisturbed. Geometrical relationships between massflow deposits and the deformed basin-plain sediment indicate that deformation occurred mainly during massflow deposition. Gravity spreading induced by the successive collapse of the growing slope-adjacent massflow wedge is proposed as the driving mechanism for the deformation. The geometry of fjord-type lakes with sharp lower slope breaks favours the deposition of thick, basin-marginal massflow wedges, that effectively load and deform the underlying sediment. In the centre of the basins, the two largest massflow deposits described are directly overlain by thick contained (mega-)turbidites, interpreted as combined products of the suspension clouds set up by subaqueous mass movements and related tsunami and seiche waves.     

Main differences between thrust belts

It is useful to differentiate between thrust belts that are related to east(E)-dipping or west(W)-dipping subduction. More precisely, these either follow or resist the overall ‘eastward’ mantle flow detected by the hot-spot reference frame. Because of the overall ‘westward’ drift of the lithosphere we find in E-dipping subduction that the basal decollement underlying the eastern plate reaches the surface and involves deep crustal rocks. With W-dipping subduction, however, we find that the basal decollement of the eastern plate is warped as well as subducted. Consequently thrust belts related to E- (or NE-) dipping subduction show conspicuous structural and morphologic relief, involve deep crustal rocks, and are associated with shallow foredeeps. On the other hand, thrust belts related to W- (or SW-) dipping subduction show relatively low structural and morphological relief, involve only shallow upper crustal rocks and are associated with deep foredeeps as well as back-arc extension. The accretionary wedge-foredeep-back-arc basin association is visualized as an overall eastward propagating tectonic wave. The accretionary wedge forms in the frontal parts and generally below sea-level. This is followed by forward migrating extension that cuts the earlier accretionary wedge. Typically such a system occurs in the context of overall W-dipping subduction and is characterized by an arcuate shape (e.g. Carpathians, Apennines, Barbados, etc.). Along the branches of the arc external transpression and internal transtension co-exist but with different sense (i.e. sinistral transpression contrasting with dextral transtension). We also observe that with W-dipping subduction the tangent to a pre- deformation marker is descending into the foredeep at an angle in the range of 1–10° while with E-(or NE-)dipping subduction the same marker would rise towards the hinterland with typical angles of about 5–10°. Foredeep subsidence is mainly controlled by the load of the thrust sheets in thrust belts due to E-(or NE-)dipping subduction and by the roll-back of the subduction hinge in accretionary wedges due to W-dipping subduction. Subsidence or uplift rates in the foredeeps and accretionary wedges related to the two different types of subduction are very different, providing different P-T-t paths in the two geodynamic realms. The present shape and structure of the thrust belts belonging to one of these two general types may help us in reconstructing the location of thinned lithosphere and basin evolution in the past.