Windspeed dependence of heat and mass transfer through coats and clothing

Penetration of a layer of fibre by wind reduces its effectiveness as a barrier to heat flow. In the literature, the dependence of coat or clothing insulation I(u) on windspeed u is usually described by a relation of the form I(u) = I(0) – au ^1/2, where a is a constant. Re-analysis reveals that it is more appropriate to treat coat conductance (proportional to 1/I) as a linear function of windspeed. Vapour conductance can also be treated as a linear function of windspeed.On leave from Washington State University, Department of Agronomy and Soils.     

Electrochemical simulations of mass transfer from isolated wet spots and droplets on realistic fluttering leaves

This paper reports on forced-convection mass transfer from isolated discs on rectangular plates as well as hemispheres on realistic fluttering leaves. An electrochemical method was used where the convective transfer of ions to the test electrode (the droplet or the wet spot) in an electrolytic flow system was measured as a function of flow rates, sizes of discs and hemispheres. Measurements showed that the local transfer coefficient for uniformly transferring plates varied as expected while the transfer from isolated discs on plates was much less a function of the distance from the leading edge. An expression to describe the transfer coefficient for an isolated disc as a function of distance from the leading edge was determined. An expression describing the transfer from hemispherical drops on fluttering leaves was derived and compared with the predictions from transfer theory for a sphere in free space.     

Simultaneous determinations of the sensible and latent heat transfer coefficients for tree leaves

The heat and mass transfer coefficients for exchange across the fluid dynamic boundary layer over tree leaves were simultaneously determined in a controlled environment chamber. The mass transfer coefficients were calculated from measured values of evaporation, air specific humidity and a value of leaf specific humidity at leaf temperature. The heat transfer coefficients were calculated from measured values of air temperature, leaf temperature and an estimate of the sensible heat flux density calculated as the measured net radiation at the leaf surfaces minus the latent heat flux density. The experiments described in this paper indicate that the equations based on laminar boundary-layer theory can give reasonable estimates of the transfer coefficients of real tree leaves for the velocities most commonly experienced in plant canopies, if they are adjusted by a constant multiplier greater than one. Calculations of local mass transfer coefficients based on temperature measurements at three locations at different distances from the leading edge of the leaves, indicate that the deviation from theory is probably the result of transition to turbulent boundary-layer flow at some distance from the leading edge.     

Geophysical applications of heat and mass transfer in turbulent pipe flow

The theory of heat and mass transfer in turbulent pipe flow is applied to a semi-infinite moist-walled cylindrical pipe to determine the longitudinal distributions of both temperature and moisture content as functions of external conditions, pipe radius and wall temperature, and flow velocity. Since many cave and mine passages approximate this model, the results are directly applicable to cave microclimate studies and mine ventilation problems. The results are found to agree well with previously published microclimate observations. The theory is also applicable to water flow in free-flow karst aquifers; specifically to the study of temperature variations and of solution kinetics under turbulent flow conditions.     

Studies of forced-convection heat and mass transfer of fluttering realistic leaf models

The forced-convection mass transfer - and by analogy, heat transfer - of various realistic leaf models at Reynolds numbers 2 x 10³<Re<4 x 104 was studied with an electrochemical method. The results are compared with similar measurements on plates and with transfer coefficients calculated from the laminar boundary-layer theory. In this way the validity of the commonly-used analytical expressions which represent the leaf by a rigid plate and neglect the effects of leaf curvature, fluttering, surface roughness and fluid turbulence, can be tested.The measurements show that for fluttering single leaves, the convective mass-transfer coefficients must be expected to be higher by a factor of 1.4 ± 0.1 than the ones calculated for rigid plates of equal size and shape. For a leaf in a crop, the increase might be as high as a factor of 2. The high transfer coefficients measured for elements of cedar foliage are also discussed.     

Heat transfer coefficients for leaves on orchard apple trees

The coefficient for heat transfer from apple tree leaves was measured from the energy balance of leaves which were prevented from transpiring by applying Vaseline (petroleum jelly). Vaseline had negligible effect on the absorption of short-wave radiation by the leaves. The Nusselt number (Nu) describing heat flux from a leaf in terms of its average temperature was related to Reynolds numbers (Re) in the range 10³ to 10⁴ by Nu = 0.46 Re^0.54 Pr^0.33, where Pr is the Prandtl number. This supports Landsberg and Powell's (1973) wind-tunnel results for transfer from leaves subject to mutual interference.     

Simulating the causal elements of urban heat islands

A comparison was made between the resultant surface temperatures and sensible heat fluxes of building interfaces calculated by steady-state and transient (implicit) methods. Both procedures used identical environmental (summer and winter) input. For exterior conditions, the results indicated that the correlation between the two methods is sufficiently large, enabling them to be used interchangeably for the spatial analysis of urban canopy layers of entire cities. Using a steady-state approach as a surrogate for unsteady conditions, computer resources can be saved up to a factor of ten. An urban energy budget model (URBAN 3) has been used to demonstrate that the distribution of sensible heat flux and net longwave radiation — the prime causes of urban heat-island generation — was far from the homogeneity assumed in many macroscopic models or even some street-level studies. The individual emanations of reradiation and sensible heat flux showed different diurnal and spatial patterns. Under the input scenarios used, daytime heat islands assumed a doughnut shape in the inner city. It is believed that many of the lower boundary conditions used in macroscopic numerical models are inadequate in light of this study.     

The influence of stratification on heat and momentum turbulent transfer in antarctica

Data from the Antarctic winter at Halley Base have been used in order to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively how the stratification in the low atmosphere (evaluated with the gradient Richardson number, Ri) influences the eddy transfers of heat and momentum. Vertical profiles of wind and temperature up to 32 m, and turbulent fluxes ( , and ) measured from three ultrasonic thermo-anemometers installed at 5, 17 and 32 m are employed to calculate Ri, the friction velocity (u _*) and the eddy diffusivities for heat (K _h ) and momentum (K _m ). The results show a big dependence of stability onK _m ,K _h andu _*, with a sharp decrease of these turbulent parameters with increasing stability. The ratio of eddy diffusivities (K _h /K _m ) is also analyzed and presents a decreasing tendency as Ri increases, reaching values even less than 1, i.e., there were situations where the turbulent transfer of momentum was greater than that of heat. Possible mechanisms of turbulent mixing are discussed.     

改进的MM4模式暴雨实例对比试验

本文利用改进了水汽输送方案的中尺度模式ＭＭ４对三次暴雨过程作了试验。这三次过程包括两次长江中下游特大暴雨和一次华并暴雨。把三次暴雨过程的降水实况和采用不同水汽输送方案所得到的模拟降水结果进行了对比，并主要分析了“８２．６”湖北特大暴雨过程。     

Mass transfer from discrete water drops on leaves in a cereal canopy

The boundary-layer resistance, r _d , for water vapour transfer from single drops on a wheat leaf was derived from field measurements of the evaporation rate, drop temperature and air humidity. Parameters are estimated in an equation to calculate r _d from drop diameter and wind speed. The relationship between resistance and wind speed is compared with that from other sources, and possible systematic errors in temperature measurements are examined using a model of the drop energy balance.On secondment from Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bristol, IACR, Long Ashton Research Station, Long Ashton, Bristol BS18 9AF, U.K.     

On the mass and heat budget of arctic sea ice

Summary Measurements during the drift of US Drifting Station A show an annual mass increase of old ice consisting of 12.5 g/cm² snow and 52 g/cm² bottom accretion. During the summer seasons 1957 and 1958 an amount of 19.2 and 41.4 g/cm² respectively, was lost by surface ablation. The ratio of ablation on elevated dry surface and in meltwater ponds is 1:2.5. The average pond area was about 30%. Bottom ablation by heat transfer from the ocean was found to be 22 cm (July to Aug./Sept.).Methods of measuring mass changes are described. In view of their importance as a means of checking the computed heat budget their accuracy is discussed in detail.The heat budget is computed for a selected period during the height of the melt season. The average daily totals are, in cal/cm²: +142 from net short wave radiation –8 from net long wave radiation, +9 from turbulent heat transfer, and –11 from evaporation. The mean daily surface ablation is 0.8 cm. About 90% of it is due to the absorption of short wave radiationOnly 62% of the total heat supply are transformed at the surface. 38% are transmitted into the ice and mainly used to increase the brine volume. The vertical distribution of this energy was used to compute the extinction coefficient for short wave radiation. From 40 to 150 cm depth it is 0.015 cm^–1, somewhat smaller than that of glacier ice.The heat used during the summer to increase the brine volume in the ice acts as a reserve of latent heat during the cooling season. By the time an ice sheet of 300 cm thickness reaches its minimum temperature in March, 3000 cal/cm² have been removed to freeze the brine in the interior of the ice and the meltwater ponds, and 1700 cal/cm² to lower the ice temperature. Based upon the observed mass and temperature changes the total heat exchange at the upper and lower boundary is estimated. During the period May–August the upper boundary received 8.3 kcal/cm², while during the period September–April 12.8 kcal/cm² were given off to the atmosphere. The results are compared with those ofYakovlev, and considerable disagreement is found with respect to the amounts of heat involved in evaporation and in changes of ice temperature (heat reserve).

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Zusammenfassung Beobachtungen während der Drift von US Drifting Station A zeigen an altem Eis einen jährlichen Massenzuwachs von 12,5 g/cm² Schnee und 52 g/cm² Eis an der Unterseite. Während der Schmelzperioden 1957 und 1958 betrug der Massenverlust an der Oberseite 19,2 bzw. 41,4 g/cm². Das Verhältnis der Ablation auf trockenen Eisflächen zu der in Wassertümpeln beträgt etwa 1:2,5. Etwa 30% der Gesamtfläche werden im Sommer von den Wassertümpeln eingenommen. Die Ablation an der Unterseite durch Wärmezufuhr vom Meer betrug etwa 22 cm (Juli bis August/September).Die Methoden der Messung des Massenhaushalts werden beschrieben. In Anbetracht ihrer Bedeutung als Kontrolle des berechneten Wärmehaushalts wird ihre Genauigkeit näher untersucht.Die Wärmebilanz der Eisoberfläche wird für einen ausgewählten Zeitraum während des Maximums der Ablationsperiode berechnet. Es ergeben sich folgende mittlere Tagessummen in cal/cm²: +142 kurzwellige Strahlungsbilanz, –8 langwellige Strahlungsbilanz, +9 Konvektionswärmestrom. –11 Verdunstung. Die mittlere tägliche Oberflächen-Ablation betrug in dieser Zeit 0,8 cm. Etwa 90% davon werden durch Absorption kurzwelliger Strahlung verursacht.Nur 62% des gesamten Wärmeangebotes werden an der Oberfläche umgesetzt. 38% gelangen in tiefere Schichten und werden dort hauptsächlich zur Vergrößerung des Volumens der Salzlösung verwendet. Die vertikale Verteilung dieser Energie wird zur Berechnung des Extinktionskoeffizienten für kurzwellige Strahlung herangezogen. In einer Tiefe von 40 bis 150 cm ergibt sich ein Wert von 0,015 cm^–1, etwas weniger als in Gletschereis.Die Wärmemenge, welche im Sommer zur Erhöhung der Eistemperatur und der damit verbundenen Vergrößerung des Volumens der Salzlösung aufgewendet wurde, dient während der Abkühlungsperiode als Wärmereserve. Von ihrem Beginn bis zur Erreichung minimaler Eistemperaturen in März werden einer 3 m dicken Eisdecke 3000 cal/cm² an latenter Wärme (Verkleinerung des Volumens der Salzlösung und Gefrieren der Schmelzwassertümpel) und 1700 cal/cm² mit der reinen Temperaturerniedrigung entzogen. Auf Grund der beobachteten Massen- und Temperaturänderungen der Eisdecke wird der gesamte Wärmeumsatz an ihren Grenzflächen abgeschätzt. Während der Periode Mai bis August erhält die Oberfläche des Eises 8,3 kcal/cm² während in der Periode September bis April 12,8 kcal/cm² an die Atmosphäre abgegeben werden. Die Resultate werden mit denen vonYakovlev verglichen, wobei sich beträchtliche Unterschiede in den Beträgen der Verdunstung und der Wärmereserve der Eisdecke ergeben. Im Zusammenhang mit den unterschiedlichen Beträgen der Wärmereserve wird die spezifische Wärme des Meereises näher diskutiert.

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Résumé Les observations faites lors de la dérive du US drifting station A font apparaître un accroissement annuel de masse de la banquise de 12,5 g/cm² sous forme de niege et de 52 g/cm² par congélation à la base. Pendant les périodes de fonte de 1957 et de 1958, la perte de masse à la surface fut de 19,2 et 41,4 g/cm² respectivement. Le rapport de l'ablation sur la glace sèche à celle des flaques est de 1:2,5. Les flaques occupent en été env. 30% de la surface totale. L'ablation à la face inférieure de la banquise par la chaleur de l'eau fut d'environ 22 cm (Juillet à août/septembre).On décrit les méthodes de mesure du bilan de masse et leur précision. On calcule ce bilan de chaleur à la surface au moment du maximum d'ablation et on en donne les composantes suivantes pour les sommes journalières moyennes en cal/cm²: bilan radiatif de courte longueur d'onde +142, bilan radiatif de grande longueur d'onde –8, flux de convection +9, évaporation –11. L'ablation superficielle moyenne est de 0,8 cm par jour dont 90% résulte de l'absorption du rayonnement à courte longueur d'onde.Le 62% seulement de l'apport de chaleur est transformé à la surface de la glace; le 38% pénètre en profondeur et sert surtout à accroître le volume du mélange salin. A une profondeur de 40 à 150 cm le coefficient d'exctinction pour le rayonnement court est de 0,015 cm^–1, plus faible que dans le glacier terrestre.La quantité de chaleur accumulée en été sert de réserve pendant la période froide pour élever la température de la glace et pour augmenter le volume de la solution saline. Du début de celle-ci jusqu'au minimum des températures en mars, une couche de 3 m d'épaisseur perd 3000 cal/cm² en chaleur latente et 1700 cal/cm² par chute de température. Il est possible d'estimer le bilan total de chaleur des surfaces de la glace à l'aide des variations observées de masse et de température. Pedant la période de mai à août, la surface de la glace reçoit 8,3 kcal/cm², tandis qu'elle cède à l'air 12,8 kcal/cm² de septembre à avril. Les résultats obtenus diffèrent de ceux deYakovlev dans les quantités de l'évaporation et de la réserve calorifique de la glace. Discussion au sujet de la chaleur spécifique de la glace de banquise.

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With 12 Figures

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Contribution No. 51, Department of Meteorology and Climatology, University of Washington.

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The field work was carried out while on leave from the Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Wien.     

Numerical simulation of heat and mass transport in water bodies

Presented is the numerical simulation of heat and mass transport in complex open channel systems using the mathematical models and numerical methods based on one- and two-dimensional (longitudinal-vertical) equations of shallow water (Saint Venant equations). The models take account of real morphometric and hydraulic characteristics of channels of the water system under consideration. Analyzed are the problems of adequacy of physical and mathematical models. Given are the examples of numerical computations of unsteady flows (hydrodynamic regime and transport of substances) in the open-channel and lake-river systems.     

燃煤电厂脱硫工艺及工艺选择要素探讨

针对我国燃煤电厂SO2排放及污染现状和目前国内外燃煤电厂普遍采用的几种典型脱硫工艺的比较,对脱硫工艺及其工艺选择的主要影响因素进行了概述。根据脱硫工艺的选择要素,从应用条件、技术、经济和环境等方面进行分析,并结合我国的实际情况,提出了燃煤电厂脱硫工艺的技术路线。     

Drag and heat transfer relations for the planetary boundary layer

A theory is offered for the drag and heat transfer relations in the statistically steady, horizontally homogeneous, diabatic, barotropic planetary boundary layer. The boundary layer is divided into three regionsR ₁,R ₂, andR ₃, in which the heights are of the order of magnitude ofz ₀,L, andh, respectively, wherez ₀ is the roughness length for either momentum or temperature,L is the Obukhov length, andh is the height of the planetary boundary layer. A matching procedure is used in the overlap zones of regionsR ₁ andR ₂ and of regionsR ₂ andR ₃, assuming thatz ₀ L h. The analysis yields the three similarity functionsA(),B(), andC() of the stability parameter, = u _*/fL, where is von Kármán's constant,u _* is the friction velocity at the ground andf is the Coriolis parameter. The results are in agreement with those previously found by Zilitinkevich (1975) for the unstable case, and differ from his results only by the addition of a universal constant for the stable case. Some recent data from atmospheric measurements lend support to the theory and permit the approximate evaluation of universal constants.     

The passive and active nature of ocean heat uptake in idealized climate change experiments

The influence of ocean circulation changes on heat uptake is explored using a simply-configured primitive equation ocean model resembling a very idealized Atlantic Ocean. We focus on the relative importance of the redistribution of the existing heat reservoir (due to changes in the circulation) and the contribution from anomalous surface heat flux, in experiments in which the surface boundary conditions are changed. We perform and analyze numerical experiments over a wide range of parameters, including experiments that simulate global warming and others that explore the robustness of our results to more general changes in surface boundary conditions. We find that over a wide range of values of diapycnal diffusivity and Southern Ocean winds, and with a variety of changes in surface boundary conditions, the spatial patterns of ocean temperature anomaly are nearly always determined as much or more by the existing heat reservoir redistribution than by the nearly passive uptake of temperature due to changes in the surface boundary conditions. Calculating heat uptake by neglecting the existing reservoir redistribution, which is similar to treating temperature as a passive tracer, leads to significant quantitative errors notably at high-latitudes and, secondarily, in parts of the main thermocline. Experiments with larger circulation changes tend to produce a relatively larger magnitude of existing reservoir redistribution, and a faster growing effective heat capacity of the system. The effective heat capacity is found to be sensitive to both vertical diffusivity and Southern Ocean wind.     

武汉城市热岛效应及其影响要素分析

利用武汉市1961—2010年逐日气温观测资料和1981—2010年城市人口资料,采用城郊对比法、相关分析法、多元线性回归分析等方法,研究了武汉城市热岛效应及其影响要素。结果表明,武汉市自20世纪80年代后热岛效应显著,且随时间发展日益严重,2000年后有所减缓;冬季热岛效应较其他季节明显;最低气温对热岛增温贡献率达83.1%,最高气温和平均气温贡献率分别为33.3%和72.2%。总体而言,武汉为弱热岛强度等级。武汉市城市人口总数与热岛效应有较显著的正相关。气象要素中风速对热岛强度的影响较大。城市人口总数对城市热岛强度的影响更明显,武汉城市热岛受人为影响更严重。     

Convective heat transfer measurements of plants in a wind tunnel

Heat transfer was studied between intact leaves of various sizes and shapes in vivo under free and forced air conditions. Use of a wind tunnel and a microwave transmitter to heat the leaves facilitated measurements of convective, along with radiative and evaporative, heat losses from plant leaves. Knowledge of input energy, analysis of cooling curves, and established formulae, respectively, formed the basis of the steady-state, unsteady-state, and analytical methods for the determination of heat transfer coefficients.Typical values of steady-state free convection coefficients for Peperomia obtusifolia varied from 1.5 × 10^–4 to 1.9 × 10^–4 cal cm^–2 s^–1 C^–1 as the temperature difference was increased from 5.9 to 9.6°C, whereas the forced convection coefficient was found to be 4.2 × 10^–4 cal cm^–2 s^–1 C^–1 at 122 cm s^–1 wind velocity. For egg-plant, this value was about 9 × 10^–4 cal cm^–2 s^–1 C^–1 at 488 cm s^–1 wind velocity. Convection coefficients as determined under steady-state conditions are compared with those of the unsteady-state and with analytical values for a single leaf and leaves of three different plants. In general, experimental values were found to be higher than the analytical ones.     

Numerical study on the bulk heat transfer coefficient for a variety of vegetation types and densities

The relationship between the geometrical structure of a canopy layer and the bulk transfer coefficient was investigated using a numerical canopy model. The following results were obtained:

1. The bulk transfer coefficients for momentum and heat, C _M and C _H , change with non-dimensional canopy density C _* each has a maximum.
2. The value of C _M is always larger than the value of C _H for a canopy with c _m > c _h , c _m and c _h being the drag coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient of an individual canopy element, respectively.
3. The value of C _* at which C _H has its maximum value is larger than the value of C _* at which C _M has its maximum. Therefore, the reciprocal of the sublayer Stanton number b _h ^?1 ranges between 50 and 65 for C _* around 0.1 while it ranges between 0 and 30 for C _* < 10^?2 and C _* > 2 (when c _m = 0.5).
4. The value of B _H ^?1 in the present study is consistent with most available observations, except for canopies of medium density (when C _* is around 0.1) for which no observational value has been obtained.

     

Application and numerical experiments with a highly-accurate advection scheme in a regional transfer model

Summary This paper examines a 19-level regional transfer model, EM3. The sensitivity of the results to different transfer schemes and effectiveness of using a high-precision scheme in raising modeling accuracy is examined. The use of a good scheme to improve the ability to simulate horizontal diffusion close to reality is also explored. EM3 was run with different precision schemes, i.e., a high-precision second-order moment conservation prather scheme (SOM for short) and an anti-diffusion Smolarkiewicz scheme (Smolar for short). The model was run 70 hrs. Results indicate that EM3 is much more sensitive to the precision of the schemes. SOM and Smolar, were compared, the former showing very weak numerical diffusion and computational dispersion so that positive solutions were kept. It is shown that i) numerical diffusion in SOM is one order of magnitude less compared to the latter; ii) the central intensity of transferred SO₂ increases by 4–5 times and the average motion trajectory of the concentration center is much improved in SOM; iii) SOM allows EM3 to precisely reflect the real horizontal diffusion. Therefore, choice of a high-precision advection scheme for EM3 will contribute greatly to an increase in its simulation accuracy.With 4 Figures