Seasonal residence and counterurbanization: the role of second homes in population redistribution in Finland

Since the late twentieth century, many developed countries have experienced population deconcentration, labelled as counterurbanization. There has been an academic discussion on the meaning, validity and universality of this concept, drivers of counterurbanization and its impacts on rural areas. To date, research on counterurbanization mostly apply static and discrete definitions of residence, migration and population, which is an increasingly simplistic view in the contemporary reality of a growing multitude of forms of mobility, often related to dual residence. Particularly large-scale quantitative studies on counterurbanization are confined by existing statistical practices. This paper attempts to overcome this obstacle and describe the transformation of the settlement system in Finland acknowledging the role of second home mobility. To achieve this goal, it introduces two alternative measures of population, seasonal and average population, and analyses their spatial dynamics between the years 1990 and 2010 based on georeferenced grid statistical data. The study finds that although registered population has been concentrating during the period in analysis, seasonal population has been increasingly dispersed due to the growing number of second homes. It shows that the counterurbanization process, though not noticed by conventional statistics, does occur in Finland, manifested by seasonal rather than permanent moves. The article concludes that various forms of mobility should be taken into account when analysing the urban–rural population dynamics and transformations of settlement systems as well as in rural development planning.     

Migrants' linkages with their place origin: The case of a new town in Northern Israel

The intensity, complexity and range of migrants' spatial linkages with their place of origin are analyzed, using Karmiel, a growing New Town in Galilee (the North District of Israel) as a case study. An index comprised of six spatial linkages is designed to measure migrants' spatial links to their hometown. Migrants to Karmiel disclosed strong linkages with their place of origin. Linkage intensity was larger among households whose employed adults commuted to their hometown, primarily in the immediate region or in the Haifa metropolitan field, at the edge of which Karmiel is located. Correlation analysis revealed a strong distance decay function, but failed to disclose a strong correlation between length of residence and linkage intensity. Regional development policy and strategy implications are discussed, suggesting a redefinition of the concept of migration fields to incorporate the entire post-migration utility space. Policy measures to compensate for migrants' distance friction costs are elaborated on.     

Changing distribution of gender in the Extended Bangkok Region under globalization

This study examines recent changes in the structure of migration and population by gender in the Extended Bangkok Region (EBR) taking the influences of economic globalization into consideration. The EBR is understood here to consist of three concentric zones, namely the Bangkok Metropolis (BM), the Vicinity and the Extended Urban Region (EUR). The spatial policy of the Thai government has encouraged investors to build manufacturing factories outside the BM. Consequently the industrial structure of the BM has turned strongly into service-dominated while the Vicinity and the EUR have attracted factories mainly owned by foreign capitals. Light industries and electronics industries, both of which set up relatively earlier, concentrated on the Vicinity, the adjacent provinces to the BM, while heavy and petrochemical industries are recently have developed in the outer regions, the EUR. Service sectors and light industries as well as electronics industries prefer females to males to employ as workers. As a consequence the population structures of the BM and the Vicinity became female-dominant while male workers were likely to gather in the EUR attracted by heavy and petrochemical industries. The gender imbalance in the population in the areas in concern may have been one of the consequences of the economic globalization of Thailand. The Thai government supported the economic globalization through its investment promotion policy, but it seems that the government did not assume the policy resulted in such gender imbalance. It can be suggested that in the future this gender imbalance may cause changes in family formation behaviors of the Thai population. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Migration in a transitional economy: Beyond the planned and spontaneous dichotomy in Vietnam

Migration is frequently portrayed as a negative force in its relationship with economic and social development. This negative perception is exhibited through describing population movements as either ‘forced’ (e.g. political and environmental refugees) or ‘voluntary’ movements (e.g. economic and uninhibited relocation). This paper examines the limitations of this conceptual dualism. It points out that the dualistic approach, widely used in the context of developing countries, simplifies a highly complex phenomenon by ignoring its essential heterogeneity and spatial and temporal dynamics. As such, it is limited in explaining and understanding the globally diversified, historically and politically contextualised situations. Focusing on the migratory experiences of contemporary Vietnam, the study identifies major patterns and trends of population mobility in the country in the past fifty years. It shows that despite the state’s continued attempts to reshape the spatial distribution of population over recent historical periods, the policy outcomes with respect to population mobility have been swayed as much by individuals and their families in pursuit of their own aspirations and livelihoods as by state plans. The Vietnam case has provided evidence of a much more complicated relationship between migration and livelihoods than the conceptual dichotomy assumes, and the opportunity for a richer set of policy options. We argue that the evidence from Vietnam, and elsewhere, warrants an integrated approach to studying migration, combining analysis at the macro- and micro-levels with the nexus lying at the critical decision-making point of the individual or household.     

Representing the imagined city: Place and the politics of difference during Guangzhou’s 2010 language conflict

In this article we investigate local citizens’ place politics and discourses of place identity during the 2010 language conflict in Guangzhou, China. Drawing on geographical scholarship on the relational construction of place and the progressive politics of difference, we conceptualize place as an assemblage of trans-local connections and disparate trajectories which constitute the radical hybridity of any particular place. In concretizing a relational rethinking of place into a local politics of difference, we suggest that Doreen Massey’s thesis of a global sense of place provides an important epistemological basis for destabilizing the normative local/non-local boundary in order to realize a relational constitution of place-based cultural identity and subjectivity. Based on a social and political campaign against state-led hegemonic language standardization, the 2010 language conflict in Guangzhou is a socially and culturally constructed process in which the Guangzhou locals’ imagination and representation of place and identity are reproduced within a local geometry of social relations involving the state language policy, the local community and the city’s migrant population. Both exclusionary and progressive discourses of place identities have been articulated in this process of re-negotiation and re-imagination of place-based identities. This paper acknowledges that some place-bounded politics may demonstrate a counter-hegemonic dimension and are therefore not inherently regressive. But we also contend that any place politics needs to ask which elements are to be welcomed and which can be excluded in a fluid regime of politics within specific networks of social relations. The cultural boundary of insiders/outsiders must be constantly re-negotiated and rendered relational with the attentiveness to ethical responsibility towards otherness.     

HIV and AIDS in Africa: a geographic analysis at multiple spatial scales

This study offers an alternative method rooted in GIS techniques and spatial analysis to estimate HIV/AIDS prevalence over space from an incomplete surveillance data set and explain the variation of those estimates. The results clearly show that the HIV/AIDS epidemic is complex and that it is interconnected with other geographic, historical, economic and cultural phenomena which help explain its spatial spread and variation. The regression models which were developed in this paper illustrated that variables which measure the historical context of colonialism such as resource exploitation and labor migration, gender, culture, contemporary global forces, poverty and disease burden have all contributed variously to the rapid spread of this disease both in space and time. The policy implication is that concentrating on behavior change or therapy alone may not turn the epidemic around. The attack needs to be multifaceted and interdisciplinary taking into consideration the context and the economic and social realities at multiple spatial scales.     

Counterurbanisation and the characteristics of persons migrating to West Cornwall

Studies at the macro-scale have indicated that many remote rural areas are for the first time in over a century experiencing population growth while metropolitan areas are losing population. In this paper theories of counterurbanisation directed towards explaining the redistribution of population at a national or regional scale are criticised and a more localised research framework is proposed. Such a framework is constructed for the examination of migration into West Cornwall. Results from a postal questionnaire survey of seven study areas in West Cornwall are used to illustrate differences between three population subgroups, namely, return migrants, non-return migrants and non-migrants. Clear differences emerge not only between the population subgroups but between the study areas as well. In conclusion, it is suggested that this middle-range approach should be adopted more widely in order to gain greater insight into the counterurbanisation process and to increase the prospect of relating macro-processes to local trends and human experience.     

蒙脱石的成岩演变与石油的初次运移

自从鲍尔斯提出成岩过程中蒙脱石脱水对油气初次运移的重要性以后,许多学者对成岩过程中蒙脱石的脱水反应特征及在油气初次运移中的意义进行了研究和讨论。一般认为成岩过程中蒙脱石的脱水为石油初次运移创造了下列有利条件: 1.提供水介质来源; 2.重新产生孔隙度; 3.促进泥岩异常高压带的形成; 4.由于蒙脱石层间水的加入,提高了烃类和脂肪酸在水中的溶解度,促进了石油的运移。 成岩过程中蒙脱石析出层间水只是蒙脱石成岩演变的一个方面,如果仅以脱水量的多少和烃类在水中溶解度的概念来评价蒙脱石的成岩演变对油气运移的影响,这显然是不够的。 关于松辽盆地白垩系泥岩粘土矿物成岩演变特征与有机变质作用和油气分布的关系,可参阅作者的有关论文[1][2],这里不再赘述。     

“Functional localities: an integrated spatial approach towards health care locality definition”

This paper demonstrates a spatial approach towards the definition of localities for health care planning. Recent international decentralisation of health care provision, and more specifically devolution within the United Kingdom, emphasises the need to develop a geographical focus in the delimitation of local structures for health care planning. Geographers, but most especially those applying Geographical Information Science (GIS) techniques, have made enormous contributions in this field and more generally in research related to health services. This paper considers some of these previous approaches and moves on in the light of new technologies, and more importantly the availability of appropriate data, to create localities that reflect dynamic spaces of social interaction, administration and policy. The paper’s focus is placed on the importance of flow data that reflects␣the spatial interaction between services and the population. This data, divided into three sub-groups of administration, education and health, allows us to identify the population’s allegiance to place and ultimately create spatially bounded functional localities that reflect this. Whilst the approach is largely technology driven, it also incorporates the expertise of local health care professionals thus recognising the importance of collaboration and multi-sectoral engagement. Although this combined approach impacted upon the way in which the final localities were defined, crucially it enabled us to incorporate features of both rigorous spatial analysis and a wealth of local knowledge.     

Changing patterns of the population distribution in Spain

The 1981 census has motivated this study, outlining changes in Spanish population patterns during the decade 1970–1981. For migration patterns the year 1975 may have been a significant turning point. As a consequence of the economic recession in the western world emigration is coming to an end; the interprovincial migration, too, is declining rapidly. In some provinces a remarkable change can be observed in the direction of migration flows. After more than 25 years the industrial regions of Spain are now losing population by migration, whereas rural provinces of the central highlands and of Andalusia exhibit some growth by migration for the first time. This is a result of return migration from abroad as well as from the industrial regions of Spain. For natural change three important dynamics overlap. First, a marked increase in natural growth from North to South is found. This pattern of natural change is strengthened or weakened regionally by age-specific selective migration. Lastly, both dynamics have recently been dominated by an overall decline of the crude birth rate in all of Spain since 1970.     

Pathways,motivations and challenges: contemporary Tuvaluan migration to New Zealand

The global climate change literature suggests that at some point in the future it is possible that low-lying areas may be drowned due to rising sea levels, and a number of Pacific Ocean states could be particularly vulnerable. It is increasingly evident that the emerging scenario of environmental change has compounded more established push–pull factors leading to migration, and has provided a new imperative for migration decision-making. By interrogating the proposition that there is a clear distinction between the policy categories of ‘migrants’ and ‘refugees,’ we examine a hitherto un-defined group of Tuvaluan migrants whose movement is in response to environmental change and possible climate change effects. The paper examines Tuvaluan migration to New Zealand through various immigration schemes for permanent residency, with an emphasis on the International/Humanitarian stream.     

石油初次运移动力学模型研究及其应用

烃源岩中生成的油气经过初次运移, 进入到储集层, 其本质应该是一个动力学过程。前人对于油气初次运移动力学有一定的研究, 但是定量研究较少。本文以烃源岩中石油初次运移为研究对象, 建立下生、上储型排烃地质模型, 从微观动力学的角度对即将进入储集层的游离相石油进行力学分析, 认为烃源岩中的石油发生初次运移进入储集层是一个动力和阻力的力学非平衡过程, 运移动力包括烃源岩地层压力和烃源岩层毛细管力, 运移阻力包括储集层地层压力、储集层毛细管力和内摩擦力。当动力大于阻力时, 石油发生初次运移; 当动力与阻力相等时, 对应着石油初次运移的临界状态; 当动力小于阻力时, 石油不能发生初次运移。因此, 可以通过对比石油初次运移动力和阻力的大小定量地预测石油初次运移充注窗口。本文将建立的石油初次运移力学模型应用到安塞油田长6段油藏, 定量地预测了石油初次运移充注窗口, 为进一步的油气勘探提供依据。     

Recent immigration to Italy: Character,causes and consequences

During the 1970s Italy changed from being a country of mass emigration to one of mass immigration, taking over from Germany the role of Europe's main recipient of immigrants from less developed countries. By 1991 the officially registered foreign population in Italy stood at 860,000; however, clandestine migrants push the real figure above 1 million. Italy was generally unprepared for this immigration and policy has been slow to evolve. Analysis of residence permit data show that the immigrants come increasingly from Third World, especially African, countries, and that there is a relative concentration in the north of Italy. One third of the immigrants are Moslem. Employment data are scarce but indicate that around two–thirds are involved in low-grade service sector activities (street-trading, domestic service, hotel work etc.). There is a high degree of occupational specialisation amongst certain national groups (Senegalese street-hawkers, Tunisian fishermen, Filipino domestics etc.). The immaturity of the immigration is also revealed by marked gender and age assymetry. Five main causes are suggested as being behind the immigration: ease of entry; Italy's increasing prosperity; segmentation of the Italian labour market, opening up specific niches for immigrant employment; dominance of push factors from the countries of origin; and the demographic collapse in Italy. Within Italy, the reaction to immigration has not been very favourable. Opinion polls indicate that Italians have mainly negative and stereotyped views of immigrants and there is disturbing evidence of growing racism. Further inflows of immigrants are likely, whatever policies Italy attempts to put in place.     

U—Series Dating of Fossil Bones：Results from Chinese Sites and Discussions on Its Reliability

Calculations,according to some open-system models,point out that while a statistically significant discrepancy between the results of two U-series methods,^230Th/^234U and ^227Th/^220Th(or ^231Pa/^235U),attests a relatively recent and important uranium migration,concordant dates cannot guarantee closes-system behavior of sample.The results of 20 fossil bones from 10 Chinese sites,19 of which are determined by two U-series methods,are given,Judging from independent age controls,8 out of the 11 concordant age sets are unacceptable,The results in this paper suggest that uranium may cycle into or out of fossil bones,such geochemical events may take place at any time and no known preserving condition may securely protect them from being affected.So for the sitew we have studied,the U-series dating of fossil bones is of limited reliability.     

Rural development and rural to urban migration in China 1978–1990

Economic reforms since the late 1970s have brought about significant changes in rural China. A large number of surplus rural labourers have been released from the agricultural sector and there has been a massive transition of rural residents from agricultural to non-agricultural employment. These changes will be analyzed by examining the changes in the employment structure of rural residents. Rural to urban migration is another important option for many rural labourers. The size of China's urban population and the scale of rural to urban migration continue to be an ‘enigma’ due to several changes in the definition of the urban population. Several data sources will be used to provide more realistic estimates of rural to urban migrations on a set of comparable though different bases. Data on the new entries into urban employment and the urban ‘non-agricultural population’ will be used to illustrate the scale of migration by rural residents to the formal urban sector. This may only record those migrants who have changed their registration status from ‘agricultural population’ to ‘non-agricultural population’ which is tightly controlled by the government. The 1990 Census data provide some evidence on the rural to urban migration by the registered ‘agricultural population’. The 1987 1% population sampling data will be used to analyze the actual migrations among cities, towns and counties over the period 1982–1987. It is found that town and county populations tended to move to towns at the intra-provincial level, but to cities at the inter-provincial level. Out-migrants from cities tended to move to cities at both the intra- and inter-provincial levels.     

甘青地区新石器-青铜时代居民颅面部形态变异及其在人群形成上的意义

通过对考古遗址出土古代居民遗骸的研究来探寻人群形成、适应、迁徙、融合历史是生物人类学研究的重要内容。甘青地区地处我国西北,位于新疆与中原之间,是人群迁徙与交流的关键地区。以往研究发现该地区新石器-青铜时代居民具有的一些独特的头面部特征,如具有偏狭的中颅型、高颅结合狭颅、中等偏狭的面宽、高而狭的面型、中等的面部扁平度、中眶型、狭鼻型和正颌型。一些学者就来自周边地区人群迁徙或基因交流对甘青地区古代人群形成的影响做过探讨。由于迄今开展的相关研究及掌握的数据资料有限,学术界对甘青地区古代人群内部的变异情况、时代变化及其与周边地区人群的差异程度还缺乏深入的了解,对新石器时代以来甘青地区人群的形成过程以及与东、西方人群的关系还不是很清楚。本文通过对243例甘青地区新石器-青铜时代人群颅骨测量数据的统计和分析,结合相关考古学和古环境学资料,对该地区古代居民颅面部形态特征的总体表现特点、时代变化、内部变异及与周边地区人群的关系进行了探讨,发现：1）从整体颅面部特征上看,甘青地区新石器-青铜时代人群介于典型西方人群与中原人群之间,但与中原人群更为接近;2）甘青地区新石器-青铜时代人群颅骨测量特征呈现一定的时代变化。从新石器时代到青铜时代,颅型趋向圆颅和阔颅化、面型趋狭、鼻型趋狭、眶型趋高;齿槽部的突颌水平变小;3）甘青地区古代人群颅面部测量特征的内部变异程度介于新疆与中原人群之间。从新石器时代到青铜时代,甘青地区人群颅面部测量特征的内部变异呈减小趋势;4）从新石器时代到青铜时代,甘青地区古代人群部分颅面部测量特征呈现出与西方人群接近的趋势。基于本文的分析,认为气候环境、生业方式以及人群之间的基因交流共同造成了甘青地区古代人群颅面部形态特征的变化,甘青地区古代人群形成以受到中原人群影响为主。

     

Diffusion of Sikhism and recent migration patterns of Sikhs in India

This paper studies the diffusion of Sikhism from its beginnings at the end of the fifteenth century to the present. By focusing on the historical importance of the Punjab plains area, a spatial crossroad, the problems of survival of the Sikh religion are analyzed. Though the Sikhs remain primarily confined to the Punjab plains, limited expansion took place in the first half of the 19th century with Ranjit Singh's conquest of lands beyond Punjab. Starting from the 2nd half of the 19th century when British occupied Punjab, the Sikhs could practice their religion without any persecution. The British preferred the Sikhs in administrative service particularly in the army, which led to migration of Sikhs to different parts of the country. The partition of India in 1947 further accentrated this migration process because a large number of Sikh refugees from Pakistan settled outside Punjab. Moreover, as a result of push factor, some agriculturally based Sikhs of Punjab went to cities all over India in search of employment in which they specialized; these were often single male migrants which caused comparatively greater female ratio in some districts of Punjab, whereas, in the urban areas outside of Punjab, there is larger male ratio. At the same time, in Punjab the greater bulk of the Sikh population is rural, which is also true of Indian population as a whole; outside of Punjab, the Sikh population is overwhelmingly urban. Though Sikh diffusion has remained restricted to the Punjab plains, their migration has witnessed a spread in the last 125 years covering different parts of India.     

Topographic migration of GPR data: Examples from Chad and Mongolia

Most ground-penetrating radar (GPR) measurements are performed on nearly flat areas. If strongly dipping reflections and/or diffractions are present in the GPR data, a classical migration-processing step is needed in order to determine the geometries of shallow structures. Nevertheless, a standard migration routine is not suitable for GPR data collected on areas showing a variable and large topographic relief. To take into account topographic variations, the GPR data are, in general, corrected by applying static shifts instead of using an appropriate topographic migration that would place the reflectors at their correct locations with the right dip angle. In this article, we present an overview of Kirchhoff's migration and show the importance of topographic migration in the case where the depth of the target structures is of the same order as the relief variations. Examples of synthetic and real GPR data are shown to illustrate the efficiency of the topographic migration.