Dilatancy and fracture induced velocity changes in rock and their relation to frictional sliding

Summary Laboratory room temperature triaxial friction tests on sawcut granite and serpentinite specimens suggest that stick-slip at high confining pressures is preceded by dilatancy in the intact rock adjacent to the shear surface. By using a fast-reacting servo-loading system in combination with a high resolution digital computer recording system it is possible to obtain a more realistic picture of the stick-slip mechanisms and the stress drop associated with unstable slip. Fracturing in granite under biaxial loading leads to a significant anisotropy in dilation andP-wave velocity of the rock. Velocity decreases remarkably in the directions of minor principal stresses with no indication for velocity recovery before macroscopic shear fracture development.The results suggest that dilatancy and velocity anomalies may precede crustal earthquakes under certain tectonic conditions.

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Zusammenfassung Triaxiale Scherversuche an polierten Scherflächen in Granit- und Serpentinitproben (Normaltemperatur) lassen schließen, daß instabile Gleitvorgänge auf den Scherflächen bei sehr hohen Manteldrücken mit vorhergehenden Auflockerungen (Dialatanz) des intakten Gesteins in der Umgebung der Scherfläche verbunden sind. Durch die Verwendung eines reaktions-schnellen Servobelastungssystems in Verbindung mit einem hoch-auflösenden digitalen Aufzeichnungssystem konnte erstmals ein Einblick in den tatsächlichen Ablauf des instabilen Gleitprozesses gewonnen werden. Der Bruch in Granit bei biaxialer Belastung führt zu einer signifikanten Anisotropie der Auflockerung des Gesteinsgefüges und damit der Geschwindigkeit seismischer Wellen. Die Geschwindigkeit derP-Wellen nimmt in Richtung der beiden kleineren Hauptspannungen mit fortschreitender Deformation kontinuferlich ohne Anzeichen eines Geschwindigkeitsanstiegs vor der Entwicklung des makroskopischen Scherbruchs ab.Die Ergebnisse lassen den Schluß zu, daß Dilatanz und damit verbundene Geschwindigkeitsanomalien Erdbeben in der Kruste bei bestimmten tektonischen Bedingungen vorangehen können.

     

Electrical resistivity changes in rocks during frictional sliding and fracture

Significant changes of electrical resistivity of saturated rocks and water pressure along sliding surface occurred during stick-slips in our direct shear experiment. Two types of changes of electrical resistivity occurred. In the first, resistivity decreased with increasing shear stress, reached minimum together with a sudden release of shear stress and returned to a higher value immediately afterwards. In the second, resistivity again decreased with increasing stress but, in contrast to the first type of changes, it decreased further upon the sudden drop of shear stress. The magnitude and the direction of the changes of water pressure on the sliding surface during stick-slip were not uniform, indicating local variations of surface deformation.     

Volume changes during fracture and frictional sliding: A review

Summary Volume changes in geologic materials have been measured with strain gauges, cantilever displacement gauges, or through observation of either pore or total volume. When porosity is less than 0.05, compaction is small or absent; apart from elastic strains in the minerals, dilatancy predominates, beginning at 50 to 75 percent of the fracture stress difference. When initial porosity exceeds about 0.05, compaction and dilatancy may overlap. The onset of dilatancy has not been identified, but most of the dilatancy occurs within about 10 percent of the fracture stress difference. In low porosity rocks, dilatancy increases initial porosity by a factor of 2 or more; in porous rocks or granular aggregates the increase is only 20 to 50 percent. However, the actual pore volume increase is larger in rocks of high initial porosity. Hence, earthquake precursors which depend on the magnitude of dilatancy should be more pronounced in porous rocks or in fault gouge. In contrast, precursors which are based on fractional changes in some porosity-related property may be more pronounced in rocks of low initial porosity. Future work is particularly needed on constitutive relations suitable for major classes of rocks, on the effects of stress cycling in porous rocks, on the effects of high temperature and pore fluids on dilatancy and compaction, and on the degree of localization of strain prior to fracture.     

Rupture and particle velocity during frictional sliding

Summary Laboratory measurements of rupture and particle velocity are in surprisingly good agreement with seismic values, providing further evidence that stick-slip friction is a suitable mechanism for shallow earthquakes. A simple theory is developed to explain the linear relationship observed between average particle velocity and stress drop for stick-slip events. Both stick-slip ruptures and cracks in brittle material commonly propagate at velocities roughly comparable to theS wave velocity of the material. Rupture normally begins relatively slowly and accelerates to a steady velocity in a few centimeters. Observations suggest that stick-slip ruptures can propagate atS wave speeds or occasionally greater and that cracks in pre-stressed glass can also propagate faster than theS waves. Fracture and thus rupture velocity of intact rock specimens is greatly influenced by the inhomogeneous structure of rock. Fracture may be modeled by coalescence of many cracks rather than growth of a single crack.Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Contribution No. 2627.     

Aspects of asperity-surface interaction and surface damage of rocks during experimental frictional sliding

Summary Mechanisms for the dissipation of energy during the frictional sliding of rocks includes brittle fracture, plastic deformation, frictional heating, and elastic distortion. The first three energy sinks are manifested by surface damage during frictional sliding. Normal load, temperature, and the velocity of the sliding surfaces as well as surface roughness and hardness all influence the nature of surface damage which includes the generation of structures such as wear grooves, gouge, and welded particles.Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Contribution No. 2620.     

热水条件下花岗质糜棱岩的摩擦滑动实验研究

为了探讨大陆地壳断层深部的力学性质,我们选择了采自红河断裂带的糜棱岩作为实验样品,进行热水条件下的高温高压摩擦滑动实验.实验在一个以气体为介质的高温高压三轴实验系统中进行.实验条件是：有效正应力为200 MPa;孔隙水压为30 MPa（在400 ℃到600 ℃之间为超临界水条件）;温度为100 ℃到600 ℃;轴向加载的速率范围从0.04 μm/s到0.2 μm/s再到1 μm/s.实验结果表明：（1）当温度小于300 ℃时,糜棱岩的摩擦强度随着温度的上升而增大;当温度大于300 ℃时,糜棱岩的摩擦强度随着温度的上升而减小.这种趋势和以往花岗岩的摩擦滑动数据基本一致;（2）糜棱岩在200 ℃和400 ℃时表现为速度弱化,其余温度下为速度强化;（3）糜棱岩与已有花岗岩的摩擦滑动数据并不完全一致;（4）花岗质糜棱岩速度弱化向速度强化转变的温度在430 ℃附近,以此我们可以推测：在变形机制为摩擦滑动的深部条件下,地震成核的深度范围可以比以往的估计更深.     

考虑支座摩擦滑移及结构碰撞的非规则人字形桥梁地震响应分析

针对非规则人字形桥梁在地震作用下灾变严重的问题,以一座非规则人字形桥梁为研究对象,建立其空间分析模型,研究综合考虑支座摩擦滑移、结构碰撞对非规则人字形桥梁地震响应的影响。结果表明:邻梁间的碰撞作用可使得桥梁墩顶位移及内力相比不考虑时有所减小,但同时也使梁体产生了较大的加速度脉冲效应;当考虑支座摩擦滑移和结构碰撞时,固定墩墩顶位移和邻梁相对位移峰值有一定程度增大,然而对梁体加速度脉冲效应结果影响并无统一规律;纵向地震波作用下,非规则人字形桥梁不仅存在顺桥向的碰撞,横桥向的碰撞响应也不容忽视。非规则人字形桥梁进行抗震设计计算时应选取符合实际情况的计算模型,考虑支座摩擦滑移及结构间的碰撞。     

安宁河断层地震成核条件研究——来自天然花岗岩断层泥摩擦实验的启示

安宁河断层历史上发生过多次强震,现存的地震空区反映了其断层中部近30年来的断层闭锁和应变积累情况,是潜在的大地震危险区.本研究采用断层带内的新鲜花岗岩断层泥样品,在水热条件下开展了摩擦滑动实验,以研究安宁河断层摩擦特性和地震成核条件.实验有效正应力200 MPa,孔隙水压30 MPa,温度25~600℃,剪切滑移速率在1 μm·s^-1,0.2 μm·s^-1,0.04 μm·s^-1之间切换.实验结果显示,在100~400℃,摩擦系数随着温度的增加而增大（约0.663~0.704）,温度高于400℃时略有降低.从200℃开始,花岗岩断层泥的摩擦滑动表现出由速度强化向速度弱化转变,并随温度升高速度弱化程度增强,在600℃时仍然具有显著的速度弱化,具备地震成核条件.本研究获得的花岗岩断层发生不稳定滑动的温度范围为200~600℃,远大于已有研究中给出的350~400℃这一不稳定滑动的温度上限.本实验首次发现,在相同温度条件下花岗岩断层滑动稳定性与加载速率转变方向有关,向慢速切换或低速下（0.04 μm·s^-1）可以促进花岗岩断层由稳定滑动向不稳定滑动转变.基于本实验结果,结合川滇地区的地温梯度,推测得出安宁河断层中北段的地震成核深度为10~30 km,该断层的地震空区是断层闭锁的具体表现.

     

Velocity changes associated with generalized triaxial deformation of pyrophyllite

Compressional and shear-wave velocities (V _p andV _s ) were measured during the generalized triaxial deformation (i.e. _{1 2}=2 ₃) of pyrophyllite. Observed velocity changes could be ascribed to crack development during dilatancy. Velocity changes were very localized with respect to the ultimate failure plane. The orientation and development of the failure plane was continuously observed with laser holography. Velocity reverals, i.e. changes from a decreasing trend to an increasing trend, were documented in a wet sample in bothV _p andV _s . These changes in bothV _p andV _p are inconsistent with dialatancy-diffusion models. The reversals were interpreted as a reflection of local stress reorientation caused by a slowly propagating fault.     

弱度比在裂隙含流体检测中的应用

裂隙中的流体检测对油气田勘探和开发有重要意义.裂隙弱度比受裂隙中流体的影响,而弱度比对速度比特别敏感,本文对弱度比与速度比的关系进行了研究,给出了弱度比与转换波速度比和时间比的表达式,并将此应用到WJT气田的裂隙含气检测中.实际资料的应用表明,用弱度比检测裂隙中的流体是可能的,弱度比剖面可作为裂隙含流体检测的基本剖面之一.     

热水条件下角闪石断层泥的摩擦滑动性质——与斜长石断层泥的对比

基于速率与状态依赖性摩擦本构关系理论框架,在热水条件下研究了角闪石断层泥的摩擦滑动性质并与闪长岩的另一种主要矿物斜长石的摩擦滑动性质进行了对比.摩擦实验是在三轴实验系统上完成,有效正应力200 MPa,孔隙压力30 MPa,并将加载速率在1.22 μm/s和 0.122 μm/s之间实施了切换.结果表明角闪石的摩擦系数均值为0.70±0.01,随着温度增加没有系统性的变化,整体低于斜长石的摩擦系数(0.75±0.01);计算与实验表明,角闪石和斜长石的摩擦系数的体积分数加权平均值与闪长岩的摩擦系数基本一致;角闪石在实验温度范围内(100～614 ℃)显示速率强化(a-b>0),与斜长石在整个温度范围内的速率弱化(a-b<0)正好相反;角闪石的速率依赖性在整个实验温度范围内无系统性的变化.     

The effects of sliding velocity on the frictional and physical properties of heated fault gouge

The frictional properties of a crushed granite gouge and of gouges rich in montmorillonite, illite, and serpentine minerals have been investigated at temperatures as high as 600°C, confining pressures as high as 2.5 kbar, a pore pressure of 30 bar, and sliding velocities of 4.8 and 4.8×10^–2 m/sec. The gouges showed nearly identical strength behaviors at the two sliding velocities; all four gouges, however, showed a greater tendency to stick-slip movement and somewhat higher stress drops in the experiments at 4.8×10^–2 m/sec. Varying the sliding velocity also had an effect on the mineral assemblages and deformation textures developed in the heated gouges. The principal mineralogical difference was that at 400°C and 1 kbar confining pressure a serpentine breakdown reaction occurred in the experiments at 4.8×10^–2 m/sec but not in those at 4.8 m/sec. The textures developed in the gouge layers were in part functions of the gouge type and the temperature, but changes in the sliding velocity affected, among other features, the degree of mineral deformation and the orientation of some fractures.     

中国大陆科学钻探孔区的地震波速模型

大陆钻探区地震资料的解释正确与否取决于对该区确定地震波速模型, 地震波速模型的确定是反射地震处理极为困难的问题.中国大陆科学钻探提供了难得的深孔岩性、构造与地球物理测井资料,可以对结晶岩区地震资料时深转换的精度与地震波速模型的确定进行检验.本文介绍了科学钻探前根据地表资料建立波速模型的方法及钻探后由钻孔资料建立波速模型的方法.由地表资料建立的波速模型其精度分布是不均匀的,其波速反演的方差将随深度成正比地放大,在有钻孔时应尽量根据钻孔资料加以修正.由地球物理测井和岩芯的波速测试结果建立的波速模型结予波速估计值均匀的约束,说明由钻孔资料取得的波速模型可以有效地降低在深部的误差,提高地震反射与岩性变化和波阻抗合成的地震道之间的相关性.为检验波速模型,由测井资料与波速模型作出的合成地震道与反射地震剖面对比时还必须考虑到井孔的实际轨迹,否则对比相关性可能明显减小.     

基于Duffing振子混沌系统的地震速度分析方法

强随机噪声干扰是导致地震勘探资料低信噪比的主要原因,如何在强随机噪声干扰下获取有效的信息是值得关注的问题.Duffing振子混沌系统是一个非线性的动力学系统,其对强随机噪声具有免疫能力,而对特定的周期性信号具有敏感性.本文提出一种基于Duffing振子混沌系统的速度分析方法.对CMP道集按照时距曲线关系进行移动窗口截取,将所截取的信号构建为待测信号加入Duffing振子混沌系统,通过相图网格分割方法(GPM)判断系统状态的改变,从而在强随机噪声背景下获得高分辨率的速度谱.理论模型和实际资料的处理结果表明,与传统的水平叠加速度分析方法相比,本方法能够在强随机噪声背景下获得更准确的速度分析结果.     

Power-law index for velocity profiles in open channel flows

Turbulence theory has demonstrated that the log law is one of the established theoretical results for describing velocity profiles, which is in principle applicable for the near-bed overlap region, being less than about 20% of the flow depth. In comparison, the power law that is often presented in an empirical fashion could apply to larger fraction of the flow domain. However, limited information is available for evaluating the power-law exponent or index. This paper attempts to show that the power law can be derived as a first-order approximation to the log law, and its power-law index is computed as a function of the Reynolds number as well as the relative roughness height. The result obtained also coincides with the fact that the one-sixth power included in the Manning equation is of prevalent acceptance, while higher indexes would be required for flows over very rough boundaries.     

环渤海地区的地震层析成像与地壳上地幔结构

利用环渤海地区的天然地震P波到时资料,采用纬度和经度方向分别为0.5°×0.6°的网格划分,反演了该地区地壳上地幔的三维P波速度结构.初步结果表明,环渤海地区地壳上地幔的速度结构具有明显的横向不均匀性：京津唐地区地壳中上部的速度异常反映了浅表层的地质构造特征,造山带和隆起区对应于高速异常,坳陷区和沉积盆地对应于低速异常;地壳下部出现大规模的低速异常与华北地区广泛存在的高导层相对应,估计与壳内的滑脱层和局部熔融、岩浆活动有关;莫霍面附近的速度异常反映了地壳厚度的变化及壳幔边界附近热状态的差异;上地幔顶部大范围的低速异常可能是上地幔软流层热物质大规模上涌所致.     

含流体复杂孔隙介质地震波衰减与频散

含流体孔隙介质中地震波的速度频散和衰减在指导复杂储层含油气性识别领域具有重要意义.本文构建了包含微观挤喷流与介观层间流影响的跨尺度模型, 并使用求解介质等效模量的方式得到了模型中地震波的频散速度与衰减因子, 克服了前人在高频段计算结果出现异常值以及不同尺度衰减峰无法分离的缺陷.在该双尺度模型的基础上, 本文又综合考虑宏观尺度Biot流, 将三种地震波衰减理论耦合, 建立了相对统一的三尺度地震波衰减岩石物理模型.在Biot理论框架下, 分析了非均匀性流体、孔裂隙结构、微观挤喷流以及介观层间流对流体压力与弹性模量的影响, 得到了该三尺度模型中地震波的波动方程, 并求解得到了相应的地震波衰减与频散曲线, 分析了不同介质参数对衰减与频散曲线的影响.我们推导了在该模型上覆均匀各向同性介质情况下, 分界面处各类极性波的反射、透射系数特征方程, 并得到了随频率以及入射角变化的反射、透射系数三维曲面.

     

南北地震带岩石圈S波速度结构面波层析成像

本文利用天然地震面波记录和层析成像方法,研究了南北地震带及邻近区域的岩石圈S波速度结构和各向异性特征.结果表明南北地震带的东边界不但是地壳厚度剧变带,也是地壳速度的显著分界.其西侧中下地壳的S波速度显著低于东侧,强震大多发生在低速区内部和边界.青藏高原东缘中下地壳速度显著低于正常大陆地壳,在松潘甘孜地块和川滇地块西部大约25～45 km深度存在壳内低速层;这些低速特征与高原主体的低速区相连,有利于下地壳物质的侧向流动.地壳的各向异性图像与下地壳流动模式相符,即下地壳物质绕喜马拉雅东构造结运动,东向的运动遇到扬子坚硬地壳阻挡而变为向南和向北东的运动.面波层析成像结果支持青藏高原地壳运动的下地壳流动模型.南北地震带的岩石圈厚度与其东侧的扬子和鄂尔多斯地块相似但速度较低.川滇西部地块上地幔顶部(莫霍面至88 km左右)异常低速;松潘甘孜地块上地幔盖层中有低速夹层(约90～130 km深度).岩石圈上地幔的速度分布图像与地壳显著不同,在高原主体与川滇之间存在北北东向高速带,可能会阻挡地幔物质的东向运动.上地幔各向异性较弱且与地壳的分布图像显然不同.因此青藏高原岩石圈地幔的构造运动具有与地壳不同的模式,软弱的下地壳提供了壳幔运动解耦的条件.     

Constitutive behavior and stability of frictional sliding of granite

An understanding of the frictional sliding on faults that can lead to earthquakes requires a knowledge of both constitutive behavior of the sliding surfaces and its mechanical interaction with the loading system. We have determined the constitutive parameters for frictional sliding of initially bare surfaces of Westerly granite, using a recently developed high pressure rotary shear apparatus that allows long distances of sliding and therefore a greater assurance of attaining steady state behavior. From experiments conducted at room temperature and normal stresses of 27–84 MPa several important results have been found. (1) A gouge layer 100 to 200 m thick was developed from the initially bare rock surfaces after 18 to 70 mm of sliding. (2) The steady state frictional resistance, attained after about 10 mm of sliding, is proportional to the negative of the logarithm of the sliding velocity. (3) Abrup changes in the velocity of sliding result in initial changes in the frictional resistance, which have the same sign as the velocity change, and are followed by a gradual decay to a new steady state value over a characteristic distance of sliding. This velocity weakening behavior is essentially identical with that found by several previous workers on the same material at lower normal stress. (4) Our results are well described by a two state variable constitutive law. The values of the constitutive parameters are quite similar to those found previously at low normal stress, but the characteristic distance is about an order of magnitude smaller than that found at 10 MPa normal stress with thicker layers of coarser gouge. (5) We have approximated our results with a one state variable constitutive law and compared the results with the predictions of existing nonlinear stability analysis; in addition, we have extended the stability analysis to systems possessing two state variables. With such formulations good agreement is found between the experimentally observed and theoretically predicted transitions between stable and unstable sliding. These results allow a better understanding of the instabilities that lead to earthquakes.     

基于方位各向异性弹性阻抗的裂缝岩石物理参数反演方法研究

裂缝储层岩石物理参数的准确获得对地下裂缝预测具有重要意义,而叠前地震反演是获得裂缝岩石物理参数的有效手段.本文从裂缝岩石物理等效模型的构建出发,从测井数据上估测了裂缝岩石物理参数,通过推导含裂缝岩石物理参数的方位各向异性弹性阻抗公式,探讨了基于方位各向异性弹性阻抗的裂缝岩石物理参数地震反演方法.实际工区地震数据应用表明,基于方位各向异性弹性阻抗的裂缝岩石物理参数反演方法合理、可靠,可以降低裂缝岩石物理参数估测的不确定性,为地下裂缝预测提供有力的依据.