Relationships between organically bound Cu and Mn in settling particulate matter and biological processes in a subarctic estuary

Plankton studies in Kachemak Bay, Alaska were combined with short-term sediment trap deployments in order to show the relationships of fluxes of Cu and Mn in organic particulate matter with biological processes occurring in the overlying water column. A large spring bloom decrease throughout the summer, due to decreasing nutrient levels and increasing grazing pressure by zooplankton. The concentration of organically bound Cu and Mn in the sediment trap particulate material increased throughout the summer reaching a maximum in August while fecal pellet production exhibited a similar increase. The fluxes of total particulate matter and organic carbon reached a maximum in June and represented a 30% increase over the corresponding fluxes in May. In contrast, the fluxes of organically bound Cu and Mn and fecal pellets in August represented 200%, 360% and 760% increases, respectively, over their respective fluxes in May. These results suggest that the enrichment of Cu and Mn in the organic particulate matter during August was a result of bioaccumulation of these metals into fecal material. The increase in the flux of the organically bound metals indicates a strong coupling between biological processes in the water column and their vertical transport. Thus, the production and subsequent sinking of fecal pellets may govern the transport of trace metals to the underlying water column and may also govern the transfer of a primary source of food and its associated trace metals to benthic communities.     

Aragonite and calcite preservation in sediments from Lake Iznik related to bottom lake oxygenation and water column depth

This study examines the forcing mechanisms driving long‐term carbonate accumulation and preservation in lacustrine sediments in Lake Iznik (north‐western Turkey) since the last glacial. Currently, carbonates precipitate during summer from the alkaline water column, and the sediments preserve aragonite and calcite. Based on X‐ray diffraction data, carbonate accumulation has changed significantly and striking reversals in the abundance of the two carbonate polymorphs have occurred on a decadal time scale, during the last 31 ka cal bp . Different lines of evidence, such as grain size, organic matter and redox sensitive elements, indicate that reversals in carbonate polymorph abundance arise due to physical changes in the lacustrine setting, for example, water column depth and lake mixing. The aragonite concentrations are remarkably sensitive to climate, and exhibit millennial‐scale oscillations. Extending observations from modern lakes, the Iznik record shows that the aerobic decomposition of organic matter and sulphate reduction are also substantial factors in carbonate preservation over long time periods. Lower lake levels favour aragonite precipitation from supersaturated waters. Prolonged periods of stratification and, consequently, enhanced sulphate reduction favour aragonite preservation. In contrast, prolonged or repeated exposure of the sediment–water interface to oxygen results in in situ aerobic organic matter decomposition, eventually leading to carbonate dissolution. Notably, the Iznik sediment profile raises the hypothesis that different states of lacustrine mixing lead to selective preservation of different carbonate polymorphs. Thus, a change in the entire lake water chemistry is not strictly necessary to favour the preservation of one polymorph over another. Therefore, this investigation is a novel contribution to the carbon cycle in lacustrine systems.     

Settling and resuspended particles: A source or a sink of phosphate in two contrasting oligotrophic high mountain lakes?

This study focuses on two Mediterranean oligotrophic high mountain lakes located in the Sierra Nevada National Park (southern Spain): Río Seco (RS) and La Caldera (LC). A combination of field measurements and laboratory experiments is used: (i) to quantify in situ settling fluxes; (ii) to study the soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) release or uptake by settling and resuspended particles; and (iii) to discriminate between the biotic and abiotic contribution for such patterns. In general, all suspensions (lake water untreated and lake water enriched with settling and with resuspended matter) in both study lakes release significantly more SRP to the solution when biological activity was suppressed. Biological uptake from settling and resuspended matter is likely to be limited by the bacterial consumption of P. Despite of these similarities, this study has revealed notable differences in the effect of sediment resuspension on SRP dynamics in both study lakes, when simulating natural conditions (biotic and abiotic processes). While in LC, the enrichment of lake water with settling and with resuspended matter did not cause an increase in SRP concentrations in lake water, SRP concentrations in RS at the end of the experiment were significantly higher (probability P < 0.05) in lake water enriched with resuspended matter (3.2 μg/l) than in natural lake water (lower than the detection limit). Accordingly, it is reasonable to expect that sediment resuspension, which occurs more frequently in RS compared with LC, affects drastically the SRP availability in the water column in RS.     

红枫湖夏季分层期间pCO2分布规律的研究

在夏季分层期间对红枫湖南、北湖湖心的水样进行分层采集,同时测定了分层水样的温度、pH、HCO₃-浓度、溶解氧(DO)、叶绿素a(Chl-a)及铵根离子(NH₄+)、硝酸根离子(NO₃-)、磷酸根离子(PO₄3-)的浓度,水体中CO₂的分压(pCO₂)由化学平衡及亨利定律求得。研究结果表明:光合作用、有机质降解及水体热分层是影响红枫湖夏季pCO₂分布的主要因素。其中,温水层CO₂欠饱和是光合作用吸收CO₂引起的,温跃层中pCO₂的急剧增加是光合产物降解产生CO₂引起的。静水层沉积物附近pCO₂最高并且还有持续增加的趋势,说明沉积物中有机质降解是静水层中CO₂增加的主要原因,夏季湖底水温较高加快了沉积物中有机质的降解。分层现象使pCO₂在水体中的分布差别明显,并且使静水层中CO₂得到积累。此外,夏季红枫湖水体中pCO₂的变化与NH₄+、PO₄3-的变化密不可分,表现为温水层中光合作用消耗NH₄+、PO₄3-,有机质降解过程伴随NH₄+、PO₄3-的释放。     

Calcite dissolution in two deep eutrophic lakes

The calcium cycle, in particular carbonate dissolution, was analyzed in two deep eutrophic lakes, Lago di Lugano (288 m maximum depth) and Sempachersee (87 m) located in Switzerland. A box model approach was used to calculate calcite dissolution in the water column and at the sediment-water interface based on various lake monitoring data such as sediment traps, sediment cores, water and pore-water analysis. A model for stationary conditions allowing the calculation of calcite dissolution in the water column for a given particle size distribution was developed. The relative values of the simulated flux were consistent with sediment trap observations. The best fit of the dissolution rate constant of sinking calcite in Lago di Lugano was on the same order of magnitude (3 · 10⁻¹⁰ kg^1/3 s⁻¹) as published laboratory values for this surface controlled process.Both lakes show a similar specific calcite precipitation rate of 170 g Ca m⁻² a⁻¹. The diffusive flux across the sediment-water interface amounts to about 15 and 10% of total calcite precipitation in Sempachersee and Lago di Lugano, respectively. However, 61% of the precipitated calcite is dissolved in the water column of Lago di Lugano compared to only 13% in Sempachersee. These results point towards the importance of grain size distributions and settling times in stratified deep waters as the two most important factors determining calcite retention in sediments of hard water lakes.     

南海颗粒物质的通量、组成及其与沉积物积累率的关系初探

通过大孔径时间系列沉积物捕获器的多年测量及对样品的多学科综合分析表明:南海北部与中部深海区1000m左右水深颗粒通量大约为90mg·m-2·d-1,在多数情况下,季风期间的颗粒通量有比较明显的增高。颗粒物主要组成为钙质生物来源的CaCO₃、生物硅、岩源物质及海洋生物来源的有机质。颗粒通量与组成在水柱中的垂向变化表明,生源组分中CaCO₃及有机质随深度具有较为明显的减少。颗粒物侧向运动可能是造成某些时段南海中部深层颗粒通量增加的主要原因。颗粒物质在进入深海沉积物之前,CaCO₃、生物硅均在深层水与沉积物界面之间发生大量的溶解作用。有机质在沉降过程中的减少,一方面是由于硅质与钙质壳体的溶解而使结合在壳体内部的有机质随之溶解造成;另一方面可能与生物及生物地球化学作用有关。岩源物质除水柱沉降之外,还可以通过浊流等底层搬运机制进入南海北部及中部海盆,其中在南海北部这种搬运作用更为明显。     

Seasonal succession and microlamina formation in a meromictic lake displaying varved sediments

In a small meromictic lake near Toronto, Canada, a mass mortality of photosynthetic bacteria followed the ventilation of the chemocline during fall (autumn) and resulted in 3–8 g m^-2 day^-1 of organic matter being deposited as a dark layer in sediment traps which were suspended in the permanently anaerobic zone. This mass mortality of photosynthetic bacteria occurred in late autumn following the annual thermal destratification of the lake's mixolimnion. Wind mixing during this period of homeothermy resulted in the introduction of low levels of dissolved oxygen into the lake's chemocline. The ensuing mass mortality of photosynthetic bacteria resulted in the release of elemental sulphur as the sulphur-rich bacteria decomposed and sank to the bottom of the lake. The ferrous ions in the water below a depth of 15 m in Crawford Lake reacted with this sulphur to form black ferrous sulphides and pyrite which formed a dark microlamina on the lake floor. Each dark microlamina was overlain by a light coloured (calcite-rich) layer which was deposited each spring and summer during the 3 yr period of this study. The mechanism of microlamina formation elucidated here has been based on the examination of bi-weekly sediment trap information. This approach has permitted an explanation of the mechanisms by which specific events such as calcite precipitation and phytoplankton seasonal succession are transcribed into the sediment record.     

Suspended sediment transport,sedimentation, and resuspension in Lake Houston,Texas: Implications for water quality

Lake Houston is a man-made reservoir located northeast of Houston, Texas. The purpose of this investigation was to document suspended sediment transport, sedimentation, and resuspension in the lake with a view towards estimating the influence of sedimentation on water quality. Sediment traps were placed in strategic locations in the lake to collect suspended sediments. Samples were analyzed for bulk density, grain size, organic carbon, and a number of trace elements. These data were analyzed along with meteorological data to examine those factors which regulate suspended sediment input and dispersal, and the role of suspended sediments in controlling water quality within the lake. Sediment input to the lake depends primarily on the intensity of rainfall in the watershed. Sediment movement within the lake is strongly influenced by wave activity, which resuspends sediments from shallow areas, and by wind-driven circulation. The increased residence time of suspended sediments due to resuspension allows greater decomposition of organic matter and the release of several trace elements from sediments to the water column. Virtually all samples from sediment traps suspended between 1 and 5 m above the lake bottom contain medium to coarse silt, and even some very fine sand-sized material. This implies that circulation in Lake Houston is periodically intense enough to transport this size material in suspension. During winter, northerly winds with sustained velocities of greater than 5 m/sec provide the most suitable condition for rapid (<1 d) transport of suspended sediment down the length of the lake. Fluctuations in current velocities and the subsequent suspension/deposition of particles may explain variations in the abundance of coliform bacteria in Lake Houston.     

Biogeochemical characteristics of settling particulate organic matter in Lake Superior: A seasonal comparison

To assess settling particulate organic matter (POM) seasonality and its availability to the benthic community, settling particulate matter was studied in terms of mass fluxes and main biogeochemical characteristics (including organic carbon (OC), nitrogen, and stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic values) at two Lake Superior offshore sites over the course of a year. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and hydrolysis, extraction, and derivatization were used to provide further compositional information. Carbon and nitrogen content, isotopic and wet chemical data, and FTIR spectra show that summer particulate material is mainly autochthonous, with higher proportions of amide and carbohydrate. FTIR shows that spring particulate material contains relatively high proportions of clay minerals, indicating major sources from sediment resuspension and/or spring runoff. Distinct amino acid distributions at the two sites, revealed by principal component analysis (PCA) based on amino acid mol% composition, possibly result from differences in OM sources and the degree of degradation occurring at the two sites. Carbohydrate (PCHO), total hydrolyzable amino acid (THAA) and FTIR data suggest that the nutritional value of bulk POM to benthic heterotrophs should be lower in spring than summer-fall, although both periods exhibited high sinking fluxes of total mass and OC. Due to sediment resuspension events and an oxic water column, organic matter eventually buried in Lake Superior’s sediments has probably experienced extensive alteration due to several cycles through the water column and the bacterially-active sediment-water interface.     

Phosphorus fractionation in surficial sediments of Pandoh Lake,Lesser Himalaya,Himachal Pradesh,India

The fractionation of P in Pandoh Lake surface sediments has been investigated for the first time in order to understand its environmental availability and sources, and the eutrophication status of this lake. Inorganic-P is present mainly as authigenic-P (step-III). The authigenic P concentration is higher in winter relative to the summer and monsoon seasons and ranged from 35.9 to 46.9 μg/g. The loosely sorbed or exchangeable-P (step-I), Fe(III)-bound-P (step-II) and detrital inorganic-P (step-IV) were higher in the monsoon season and varied from 3.70 to 11.1 μg/g, 16.9 to 32.0 μg/g and 9.89 to 17.0 μg/g, respectively. Organic-P reached a maximum in the summer season and ranged from 8.00 to 14.9 μg/g. Authigenic-P and detrital inorganic-P show seasonal changes, as pH influences the interaction between P and CaCO₃ in the water column. In the winter season, phosphate is precipitated out of the water column and fixed in the sediments as a result of an increase in pH. Calcite-bound-P in the sediments may be redissolved by decreasing pH in the summer season. Relatively high rates of mineralization during the monsoon results in the seasonal pattern of organic-P fractionation to sediment as follows: monsoon = winter < summer. Iron, Ca, organic matter and silt and clay contents seem to play a significant role in regulating the seasonal P budget. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the factors which influence sedimentary P in the different seasons.     

Holocene carbonate sedimentation in Lake Manitoba, Canada

The carbonate mineral suite of the modern offshore bottom sediment of the South Basin of Lake Manitoba consists mainly of high magnesian calcite and dolomite with minor amounts of low-Mg calcite and aragonite. The high-Mg calcite is derived from inorganic precipitation within the water column in response to supersaturation brought about by high levels of organic productivity in the basin. Both dolomite and pure calcite are detrital in origin, derived from erosion of the surrounding carbonate-rich glacial deposits. Aragonite, present only in trace amounts in the offshore sediments, is bioclastic in origin. The upward increase in the amount of magnesian calcite in the post-glacial sediment record is attributed to increasing photosynthetic utilization of CO₂ in the lake. Stratigraphic variation in the amount of magnesium incorporated into the calcite lattice is interpreted as reflecting a variable magnesium input to the lake from ground water and surface runoff, and possibly variable calcium removal in the precipitating lake water. The effects of long-term chemical weathering at the source and size segregation explain the changes in dolomite content throughout the section.     

Advances in understanding calcite varve formation: new insights from a dual lake monitoring approach in the southern Baltic lowlands

We revise the conceptual model of calcite varves and present, for the first time, a dual lake monitoring study in two alkaline lakes providing new insights into the seasonal sedimentation processes forming these varves. The study lakes, Tiefer See in NE Germany and Czechowskie in N Poland, have distinct morphology and bathymetry, and therefore, they are ideal to decipher local effects on seasonal deposition. The monitoring setup in both lakes is largely identical and includes instrumental observation of (i) meteorological parameters, (ii) chemical profiling of the lake water column including water sampling, and (iii) sediment trapping at both bi-weekly and monthly intervals. We then compare our monitoring data with varve micro-facies in the sediment record. One main finding is that calcite varves form complex laminae triplets rather than simple couplets as commonly thought. Sedimentation of varve sub-layers in both lakes is largely dependent on the lake mixing dynamics and results from the same seasonality, commencing with diatom blooms in spring turning into a pulse of calcite precipitation in summer and terminating with a re-suspension layer in autumn and winter, composed of calcite patches, plant fragments and benthic diatoms. Despite the common seasonal cycle, the share of each of these depositional phases in the total annual sediment yield is different between the lakes. In Lake Tiefer See calcite sedimentation has the highest yields, whereas in Lake Czechowskie, the so far underestimated re-suspension sub-layer dominates the sediment accumulation. Even in undisturbed varved sediments, re-suspended material becomes integrated in the sediment fabric and makes up an important share of calcite varves. Thus, while the biogeochemical lake cycle defines the varves’ autochthonous components and micro-facies, the physical setting plays an important role in determining the varve sub-layers’ proportion.     

Effects of calculation procedure and sampling site on trap method estimates of sediment resuspension in a shallow lake

Resuspension estimates given by two different trap methods in a shallow lake were compared. The sensitivity of the methods to errors in estimates of gross sedimentation and organic fraction of trapped material was explored. The methods were label method, in which resuspension is estimated by determining the organic fraction of surface sediment, suspended seston and trapped material, and SPIM/SPM method, where the relationship between settling particulate inorganic matter (SPIM) and total settling particulate matter (SPM) is used. During the whole 111 day study period, according to the label method, at a sheltered station 1949 g m⁻² dry weight of sediment was resuspended, whereas SPIM/SPM gave an estimate of 1815 g m⁻². The difference in the estimates was probably due to mineralization loss of organic material in the traps during the two week exposure periods. Sensitivity analysis showed that of the two methods, the label method was more sensitive to variations in the organic content of trapped material. At a wind-exposed station, the total amounts of resuspended matter given by the label method and by the SPIM/SPM method were 4966 g m⁻² and 4971 g m⁻², respectively. Due to wind effects, escape of trapped material took place, which caused underestimation of gross sedimentation and compensated the effects of mineralization loss to diminish the difference between the methods. Of the two methods, the SPIM/SPM method seems thus more suitable for lakes, where bacterial activity is high. If cyanobacterial blooms take place, the label method is probably more reliable, providing that the exposure time of sediment traps is kept adequately short.     

Distribution and Fluxes of Calcium Carbonatealong the Continental Margin in the Gulf of Biscay

Compositions of major components in suspended matter,collected by centrifugation, in situ pumping andsediment traps, in the Gulf of Biscay during the OMEXproject were determined and compared. The resultsshow a strong and rapid decrease in the concentrationof biogenic fraction in the upper 200 m of the watercolumn which may be attributed to the preferentialremoval of this component due to the production offaecal pellets and to the formation of marine snow. Concurrent decrease with depth of the organic andinorganic carbon contents demonstrate the importanceof the respiration of organic matter and thedissolution of calcium carbonate in the oceanic carboncycling. Lithogenic and carbonate fluxes across thecontinental slope in the Goban Spur area wereevaluated based on sediment trap records. The rate ofproduction of calcium carbonate in the surface waters(100 g CaCO3 m-2y-1), deduced from theprimary production measurements, is much largercompared to the fluxes of this component observed inthe sediment traps (5–21 g CaCO3 m-2y-1)and to its rate of burial (9–31 gCaCO3 m-2y-1). It strongly suggeststhe occurrence of carbonate dissolution, even inwaters oversaturated with respect to the mineral phaseconsidered. This is likely to be associated with therespiration of organic matter within the faecalpellets, or at the surface of biogenic calcite oraragonite     

Biomarker seasonality study in Lake Van, Turkey

The endorheic Lake Van in eastern Anatolia (Turkey) is the world’s largest soda lake and it is an important site in paleoclimate studies to understand past continental conditions in western Asia. In order to gain further insights into the biomarker signatures in Lake Van’s sediments we have analyzed particulate material in sediment traps deployed between August 2006 and July 2007. The biomarkers used were long chain alkenones (LCAs C₃₇-C₃₉, haptophyte lipids), isoprenoid glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs, Archaea membrane lipids) and pigments (chlorins and fucoxanthin). The biomarker fluxes indicate a strong seasonality in export primary productivity and the phytoplankton community structure. The highest total mass and organic carbon fluxes were found in summer, coupled to strong stratification while the lowest mass fluxes occurred in winter at the time of water column mixing. With increasing temperatures in early spring, phytoplankton export productivity grew, coupled with an increase of total mass flux and organic carbon, which might be associated to enhanced nutrient input from snowmelt runoff. The percentage of C_37:4 shows some correspondence with observed seasonal changes in Lake Van’s stratification structure. We also evaluated the potential applicability of molecular temperature proxies derived from Archaea and haptophyte lipids. The use of the TEX₈₆ proxy was precluded by low GDGT abundances. Estimated LCA temperatures were consistent with temperatures in the photic zone but no seasonality changes were observed despite the wide annual temperature range measured at Lake Van.     

Amino acid composition of suspended particles,sediment-trap material,and benthic sediment in the Potomac Estuary

Sediment trap deployments in estuaries provide a method for estimating the amount of organic material transported to the sediments from the euphotic zone. The amino acid composition of suspended particles, benthic sediment, and sediment-trap material collected at 2.4 m, 5.8 m, and 7.9 m depths in the Potomac Estuary was determined in stratified summer waters, and in well-mixed oxygenated waters (DO) in late fall. The total vertical flow, or flux, of material into the top traps ranged from 3 g m^?2 d^?1 in August to 4.9 g m^?2 d^?1 in October. The carbon and nitrogen fluxes increased in the deepest traps relative to the surface traps during both sampling periods, along with that of the total material flux (up to 47.3 g m^?2 d^?1 in the deepest trap), although the actual weight percent of organic carbon and organic nitrogen decreased with depth. Amino acid concentrations ranged from 129 mg g^?1 in surface water particulate material to 22 mg g^?1 in particulate material in 9-m-deep waters and in the benthic sediment. Amino acid concentrations from 2.4-mg-depth sediment traps averaged 104±29 mg g^?1 in stratified waters and 164±81 mg g^?1 in well-mixed waters. The deep trap samples averaed, 77.3±4.8 mg g^?1 amino acids in summer waters and 37±16 mg g^?1 in oxygenated fall waters. Amino acids comprised 13% to 39% of the organic carbon and 12% to 89% of the orgnaic nitrogen in these samples. Analysis of the flux results suggest that resuspension combined with lateral advection from adjacent slopes can account for up to 27% of the material in the deep traps when the estuary was well-mixed and unstratified. When the estuary was stratified in late summer, the amino acid carbon produced by primary productivity in the euphotic zone decreased by 85% (86% for total organic carbon) at the pycnocline at 6 m depth, leaving up to 15% of the vertical organic flux available for benthic sediment deposition.     

Benthic exchange of nutrients in Galveston Bay, Texas

Nutrient regeneration rates were determined at three sites increasing in distance from the Trinity River, the main freshwater input source, to Galveston Bay, Texas, from 1994 through 1996. Diffusive fluxes generally agreed in direction with directly measured benthic fluxes but underestimated the exchange of nutrients across the sediment-water interface. While the fluxes of ammonium and phosphate were directed from the sediment into the overlying waters, the fluxes of silicate and chloride changed in both magnitude and direction in response to changing Trinity River flow conditions. Oxygen fluxes showed benthic production during both summer 1995 and winter 1996, while light-dark deployments showed production-consumption, respectively. Benthic inputs of nutrients were higher at either the middle or outer Trinity Bay regions, most likely due to a higher quality and quantity of the autochthonous organic matter deposited. This feature is consistent with and gives evidence for previously observed non-conservative mixing behaviors reported for nutrients in this region of Galveston Bay. Calculated turnover times, between 7 to 135 d for phosphate, 4 to 56 d for silicate, and 0.3 to 10 d for ammonium were significantly shorter than the average Trinity Bay water residence time of 1.5 yr for the period September 1995 through October 1996. During periods of decreased Trinity River flow and increased residence times, benthic inputs of ammonium and phosphate were 1 to 2 orders of magnitude greater than Trinity River inputs and were the dominant input source of these nutrients to Trinity Bay. The sediments, a sink for silicate when overlying water column concentrations of silicate were elevated, became a source of silicate to the overlying waters of Trinity Bay under reduced flow, high salinity conditions.     

Tomographic study of Paleoproterozoic carbonates as key to understanding the formation of molar-tooth structure

X-ray computed tomographic studies of relatively pure Paleoproterozoic limestones from the George Formation, Muskwa Assemblage, northern British Columbia, Canada indicate that molar-tooth structures developed along linked fractures in gel-like semi-plastic carbonate mud, with a high organic content. Where pore fluid and/or gas pressures matched confining loads, MT blobs developed. Where pressure exceeded loads, cracks propagated into adjacent semi-elastic sediment and were rapidly filled by clusters of uniform, equant, microcrystalline carbonate. Where abundant carbonate was not precipitated, incipient cracks and sheets collapsed leaving residual trains of microcrystalline carbonate with similar density to the molar-tooth carbonate. Tomographic studies show that the density of calcite domains within petrographically uniform sheets of MT void-filling calcite is uneven, suggesting that precipitation was not instantaneous, but was propagated from discrete centres.It is here suggested that carbonate production and sediment rheology were both strongly influenced by organic matter. During early sea-floor diagenesis microcrystalline carbonate precipitated within organic-rich sediment with high water content, possibly within decomposing mats of microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). When pore pressures in the host sediment increased in response to cyclic loading by long-period waves, pore fluids containing EPS were injected into newly created fractures, allowing rapid precipitation of molar-tooth carbonate. Because tomographic studies allow detailed resolution of minor density differences, they provide a useful method of evaluating structures in relatively uniform carbonate rocks of any age.     

Seasonal and spatial changes in water and sediment quality variables in Bafa Lake

The brackish Bafa Lake located in the southwestern part of Turkey is under stress because of both natural and untreated wastewater effluents. The purpose of this research is to determine spatiotemporal distributions of some physicochemical variables in water column (temperature, salinity, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, NH₄–N, NO₂–N, NO₃–N, oPO₄–P, TPO₄–P, chlorophyll-a, total suspended solids) and sediment (TN, TC, TOC, TP) and their relationships at coastal stations. In the water column, nitrate and phosphate concentrations showed seasonal variations with high values recorded in winter period. Ammonium was determined as a main source of TIN component. During summer period, a large amount of total phosphorus was found as dissolved organic form. However, in the winter period, inorganic phosphate levels increased at sampling stations. N limitation was a common feature throughout the lake where P-limitation was only observed in summer period. The total phosphorus levels which showed hypereutrophic condition at the western part of the lake changed between 1.55 and 4.99 μM and did not remain in the range for uncontaminated condition. In the lake sediment, a strong relationship was found between TOC and TC levels. Generally, the mean TOC concentrations constitute small amount of TC values in the sampling stations. The results also indicated that a strong correlation exists between TOC and TN values, and TN was greatly regulated by organic sources. In the lake, TOC:TN ratios changed between 5 and 13; the ratio greater than 10 could be an indicator of algal and land plant sources mixing as an organic matter.     

An explanation for the varves of the Castile evaporites (Upper Permian), Texas and New Mexico, USA

Abstract Extraordinary sequences of conspicuous, pervasive and laterally persistent varves characterize the Castile evaporites. They occur as singlets (calcite laminae), couplets (calcite laminae interstratified with anhydrite laminae), thick couplets (calcite laminae interstratified with thin anhydrite beds) and triplets (calcite and anhydrite laminae interstratified with thin halite beds). The varves accumulated in a deep (initially ≈ 550 m), persistently stratified, saline lake surrounded by an extinct reef. The lake had formed when the reef grew across a channel between an embayment and the ocean. Although located virtually on the palaeo-equator, the lake experienced negligible meteoric influx and extreme seasonality. During the season of high relative humidity, more marine groundwater entered the lake through the permeable reef barrier than exited as reflux and, secondarily, as evaporation. Consequently, the lake level rose by up to several metres to sea level. The ‘refreshening’ decreased salinity and replenished dissolved CO₂– the critical nutrient limiting growth of indigenous phytoplankton. Algae proliferated, pH increased and CaCO₃ precipitated. It mixed with organic matter to form a thin, dark lamina. During the season of low relative humidity, tens of cubic kilometres of water evaporated from and, secondarily, leaked out through the surrounding reef. More water exited than entered, brine level fell below sea level, and salinity of the upper brine layer increased. Gypsum usually precipitated and rained onto the basin floor forming a couplet; infrequently, halite also precipitated forming a triplet. Every few thousand years, for <50 to several hundred years, the lake became unstratified during the dry season, and wind-induced overturn allowed a layer of gypsum crystals up to ≈ 2 cm high to precipitate on the basin floor. Each layer, now thin beds of anhydrite nodules and anhydrite pseudomorphs after gypsum, and an underlying lamina of CaCO₃ and admixed organic matter formed a thick couplet. The different varve types recur with a period of 1800–3000 years reflecting climatic changes on a millennial time scale.