Magmatic petrogenesis and the evolution of (F:Cl:OH) fluid composition in barren and tungsten skarn-associated plutons using apatite and biotite compositions: Case studies from the northern Canadian Cordillera

A detailed study of apatite and biotite compositions in multiple intrusive phases from five composite plutons in the northern Canadian Cordillera was undertaken with the aim of determining the composition of magmatic fluids relative to F:Cl:OH for several plutons―both barren and mineralizing―and for specific intrusive phases from each pluton that may be related to nearby tungsten skarns. Magmatic apatite and biotite compositions are consistent with a crustal source of magma, either derived from predominantly supracrustal rocks, and (or) derived from predominantly infracrustal rocks and fractionated to felsic compositions. Increasing MnO (± FeO and XF:XCl) with decreasing CaO in apatite broadly correlates with an increasing degree of magmatic differentiation, although Fe# vs. total aluminum in biotite is a better indicator of inter- and intra-plutonic differentiation. Anomalously iron-rich biotites occur in highly fractionated and (or) wallrock-contaminated phases of plutons associated with tungsten skarns.Estimates of magmatic fluid composition―calculated as the activity ratios log[aHCl / a_HF] and log[a_HOH / a_HF] from apatite and biotite compositions―show several trends with respect to magmatic differentiation. Two barren plutons demonstrate that fluids in silicic magmas become HF enriched relative to HCl with increasing differentiation, although re-equilibration with late-stage sub-solidus or hydrothermal fluids may obscure this trend. The three intrusions with associated tungsten skarn mineralization, including the world-class Cantung deposit, also become HF-enriched with magmatic evolution. However, magmatic apatite and biotite in individual intrusive phases that are the most closely associated with mineralization have equilibrated with compositionally distinct fluids. In these particular intrusive phases, apatite appears to have equilibrated with an earlier HCl- and H₂O-rich magmatic fluid, and biotite appears to have equilibrated with a later HCl- and (a particularly) H₂O-rich magmatic fluid. The fluid in these magmas apparently evolved to a H₂O-rich (or less saline) composition as the temperature of the magma decreased. None of the other intrusive phases, from either the barren or tungsten-associated plutons, have apatite and biotite activity ratios that are suggestive of equilibration with such an HCl/HF- and H₂O/HF-rich fluid. Instead, the activity ratios calculated from apatite and biotite in intrusive phases that are not as closely associated with mineralization are well-coupled and unremarkable (although small variations are common), which would suggest that both minerals equilibrated with similar fluids. These intrusive phases do not appear to have produced a large quantity of saline hydrous fluid capable of seggregating and transporting tungsten. The identification of intrusive phases that did produce magmatic fluids that were anomalously enriched in HCl and H₂O could, therefore, be a predictor of nearby tungsten skarn mineralization.     

Immiscibility between silicate magmas and aqueous fluids: a melt inclusion pursuit into the magmatic-hydrothermal transition in the Omsukchan Granite (NE Russia)

Exsolution (unmixing) of the volatile element-rich phases from cooling and crystallising silicate magmas is critical for element transport from the Earth’s interior into the atmosphere, hydrosphere, crustal hydrothermal systems, and the formation of orthomagmatic ore deposits. Unmixing is an inherently fugitive phenomenon and melt inclusions (droplets of melt trapped by minerals) provide robust evidence of this process. In this study, melt inclusions in phenocrystic and miarolitic quartz were studied to better understand immiscibility in the final stages of cooling of, and volatile exsolution from, granitic magmas, using the tin-bearing Omsukchan Granite (NE Russia) as an example.

Primary magmatic inclusions in quartz phenocrysts demonstrate the coexistence of silicate melt and magma-derived Cl-rich fluids (brine and vapour), and emulsions of these, during crystallisation of the granite magma. Microthermometric experiments, in conjunction with PIXE and other analytical techniques, disclose extreme heterogeneity in the composition of the non-silicate phases, even in fluid globules within the same silicate melt inclusion. We suggest that the observed variability is a consequence of strong chemical heterogeneity in the residual silicate-melt/brine/vapour system on a local scale, owing to crystallisation, immiscibility and failure of individual phases to re-equilibrate. The possible evolution of non-silicate volatile magmatic phases into more typical “hydrothermal” chloride solutions was examined using inclusions in quartz from associated miarolitic cavities.     

Hydrothermal jarosite and hematite in a pyroxene-hosted melt inclusion in martian meteorite Miller Range (MIL) 03346: Implications for magmatic-hydrothermal fluids on Mars

Low-temperature aqueous processes have been implicated in the generation of jarosite and hematite on the martian surface, but little is known regarding the role that high-temperature magmatic fluids may have played in producing similar assemblages on Mars. We have identified jarosite and hematite in a clinopyroxene-hosted melt inclusion in martian meteorite MIL 03346 that shows evidence of having been hydrothermally precipitated. In addition to jarosite and hematite, the melt inclusion contains titanomagnetite, pyrrhotite, potassic-chlorohastingsite, an iron-rich silicate glass and possibly goethite. These phases were identified and characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), con-focal Raman-spectroscopy and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA).Based on observed textural relationships and the compositions of the hosted phases, we report that the jarosite-bearing melt inclusion in MIL 03346 has recorded a fluid-rich history that began in the magmatic stage and continued to low-temperatures. This history begins at entrapment of a volatile-rich silicate melt that likely reached fluid-saturation after only minor crystallization within the melt inclusion. This fluid, rich in chlorine, reacted with surrounding silicate material to produce the potassic-chlorohastingsite. As cooling proceeded, the liquid phase eventually became more oxidized and reacted with the pyrrhotite. Sulfide oxidation resulted in SO₄²⁻ formation and concomitant acid production, setting the stage for jarosite formation once the fluid cooled beyond the upper thermal stability of jarosite (∼200 °C). As the fluid cooled below 200 °C, jarosite continued to precipitate with hematite and/or goethite until equilibrium was established or reactions became kinetically unfavorable.This work suggests an additional jarosite-hematite formation pathway on Mars; one that may be important wherever magmatic-hydrothermal fluids come into contact with primary sulfide grains at the martian surface or subsurface. Moreover, hydrothermal fluids rich in chlorine, sulfur, and iron are important for ore-forming processes on Earth, and their indirect identification on Mars may have important implications for ore-formation on Mars.     

The competing models for the origin and internal evolution of granitic pegmatites in the light of melt and fluid inclusion research

In this paper we discuss the main petrogenetic models for granitic pegmatites and how these models have evolved over time. We suggest that the present state of knowledge requires that some aspects of these models to be modified, or absorbed into newer ones. Pegmatite formation and internal evolution have long supposed the need for highly water- and flux-enriched magmas to explain the differences between pegmatites and other intrusives of similar major element composition. Compositions and textural characteristics of fluid and melt inclusions in pegmatite minerals provide strong evidence for such magmas. Furthermore, we show that melt inclusion research has increased the number of potential flux components, which may include H₂O, OH^?, CO₂, HCO ₃ ^? , CO ₃ ^2? , SO ₄ ^2? , PO ₄ ^3? , H₃BO₃, F , and Cl, as well as the elements Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Be, herein described as melt structure modifiers. In this paper we emphasize that the combined effect which these components have on the properties of pegmatite melts is difficult to deduce from experimental studies using only a limited number of these components. The combination and the amount of the different magmatic species, together with differences in the source region, and variations in pressure and temperature cause the great diversity of the pegmatites observed. Some volatile species, such as CO ₃ ^2? and alkalis, have the capacity to increase the solubility of H₂O in silicate melt to an extraordinary degree, to the extent that melt-melt-fluid immiscibility becomes inevitable. It is our view that the formation of pegmatites is connected with the complex interplay of many factors.     

Magmatic evolution of Li–F, rare-metal granites: a case study of melt inclusions in the Khangilay complex, Eastern Transbaikalia (Russia)

We report compositions of homogenized quartz-hosted melt inclusions from a layered sequence of Li-, F-rich granites in the Khangilay complex that document the range of melt evolution from barren biotite granites to Ta-rich, lepidolite–amazonite–albite granites. The melt inclusions are crystalline at room temperature and were homogenized in a rapid-quench hydrothermal apparatus at 200 MPa before analysis. Homogenization runs determined solidus temperatures near 550 °C and full homogenization between 650 and 750 °C. The compositions of inclusions, determined by electron microprobe and Raman spectroscopy (for H₂O), show regular overall trends of increasing differentiation from the least-evolved Khangilay units to apical units in the Orlovka intrusion. Total volatile contents in the most-evolved melts reach over 11 wt.% (H₂O: 8.6 wt.%, F: 1.6 wt.%, B₂O₃: 1.5 wt.%). Concentrations of Rb range from about 1000 to 3600 ppm but other trace elements could not be measured reliably by electron microprobe. The resulting trends of melt evolution are similar to those described by the whole-rock samples, despite petrographic evidence for albite- and mica-rich segregations previously taken as evidence for post-magmatic metasomatism.

Melt variation trends in most samples are consistent with fractional crystallization as the main process of magma evolution and residual melt compositions plot at the granite minimum in the normative Qz–Ab–Or system. However, melts trapped in the highly evolved pegmatitic samples from Orlovka deviate from the minimum melt composition and show compositional variations in Al, Na and K that requires a different explanation. We suggest that unmixing of the late-stage residual melt into an aluminosilicate melt and a salt-rich dense aqueous fluid (hydrosaline melt) occurred. Experimental data show the effectiveness of this process to separate K (aluminosilicate melt) from Na (hydrosaline melt) and high mobility of the latter due to its low viscosity and relatively low density may explain local zones of albitization in the upper parts of the granite.     

The petrogenesis of basic and ultrabasic alkaline rocks of western Makhtesh Ramon,Israel: geochemistry,melt and fluid inclusion study

The basic and ultrabasic alkaline rocks of western Makhtesh Ramon, Israel crop out in numerous lava flows and subvolcanic bodies. The rock suite is composed of tephrite, basanite, basanitic nephelinite, analcimite, olivine nephelinite, and melilite-olivine nephelinite and in many outcrops is represented by glass-bearing varieties. Melt and fluid inclusions have been studied in olivine, clinopyroxene, and plagioclase phenocrysts. The EP, SIMS and microthermometry methods were used for inclusion study. The geochemical data obtained on glasses of melt inclusions (major, REE, trace elements, volatiles) are compared with the data on whole-rock and groundmass glass compositions. The compositions of melt inclusions reflect the different stages of rock crystallization: the initial products of crystallization are similar to whole-rock compositions whereas final portions of melts are usually enriched in SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and alkalis, and depleted in mafic components. The data on contemporaneous melt and CO₂ inclusions were used for the evaluation of the P–T conditions of rock generation. The following parameters were obtained: tephrite: P = 6.3–7.7 kbar and T = 1,150–1,250°C; basanite: P = 6.6–9.2 kbar and T = 1,150–1,250°C; olivine and analcime-olivine nephelinite: P = 5.6–8.2 kbar and T = 1,150–1,250°C; melilite-olivine nephelinite: 4.0–5.4 kbar and T mainly between 1,150 and 1,200°C. Magma genesis was restricted to P–T conditions of spinel- and plagioclase-lherzolite fields. These data suggest the shallowest depth of magma genesis occurred in Makhtesh Ramon compared to other occurrences of Early Cretaceous magmatism at the Middle East. Differences in the degree of batch partial melting of the same source rocks best explain the diversity of the igneous suite in western Makhtesh Ramon.     

A comparative mineralogical and geochemical study of sulfide mine tailings at two sites in New Mexico, USA

A comparative study of sulfide mine tailings from two sites near Silver City in southwest New Mexico has shown the need for environmental monitoring in a geological context. The Cyprus-Piños Altos and Cleveland deposits consist of Cu and Zn skarn mineralization in the Piños Altos Mountains of New Mexico. Primary ore minerals in both deposits include chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The Cyprus-Piños Altos Mine ceased operation in 1995 and the Cleveland Mill closed in 1950. The deposits have similar mineralogical characteristics; however, the tailings are different in terms of age, degree of oxidation and method of disposal. The Cyprus-Piños Altos tailings (CPAT) are stored in a lined, bermed impoundment. They are dominantly water-saturated and exhibit no secondary-phase formation. The grains are not cemented and show no evidence of primary-mineral dissolution. The geochemical data show a predominantly primary signature. The tailings pond water is neutral to slightly alkaline (pH?from 7 to 8.3), partly as a result of processing methods. The Cleveland mill tailings (CMT) were deposited in a valley at the headwaters of an ephemeral stream. They are highly oxidized and differentially cemented. They have undergone numerous wet/dry cycles resulting in extensive oxidation. Secondary minerals predominate, and consist mainly of jarosite, goethite, hematite, and Fe-oxyhydroxides and -oxyhydroxysulfates. The pH of the stream draining the CMT is as high as 2.15. Maximum metal contents in the stream immediately downstream from the tailings are 5305?ppm Zn, 454?ppm Cu, 1.16?ppm Pb, 17.5?ppm Cd, 1.4?ppm As, and 0.01?ppm Hg.     

Evolution of a Porphyry-Cu Mineralized Magma System at Santa Rita, New Mexico (USA)

The magmatic processes leading to porphyry-Cu mineralizationat Santa Rita are reconstructed on the basis of petrographicstudies, thermobarometry, and laser-ablation inductively-coupled-plasmamass-spectrometry analyses of silicate melt and sulfide inclusionsfrom dikes ranging from basaltic andesite to rhyodacite. Combinedresults suggest that magma evolution at Santa Rita is similarto that of sulfur-rich volcanoes situated above subduction zones,being characterized by repeated injection of hot, mafic magmainto an anhydrite-bearing magma chamber of rhyodacitic composition.The most mafic end-member identified at Santa Rita is a shoshoniticbasaltic andesite that crystallized at 1000–1050°C,1–3 kbar and log f_O2 = NNO + 0·7 to NNO + 1·0,whereas the rhyodacite crystallized at 730–760°C andlog f_O2 = NNO + 1·3 to NNO + 1·9. Mixing betweenthe two magmas caused precipitation of 0·1–0·2wt % magmatic sulfides and an associated decrease in the Cucontent of the silicate melt from 300–500 ppm to lessthan 20 ppm. Quantitative modeling suggests that temporal storageof ore-metals in magmatic sulfides does not significantly enhancethe amount of copper ultimately available to ore-forming hydrothermalfluids. Magmatic sulfides are therefore not vital to the formationof porphyry-Cu deposits, unless a mechanism is required thatholds back ore-forming metals until late in the evolution ofthe volcanic–plutonic system. KEY WORDS: porphyry-Cu; sulfur; sulfides; magma mixing; LA-ICP-MS     

Soil-water dynamics and tree water uptake in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico (USA): a stable isotope study

In the southwestern United States, precipitation in the high mountains is a primary source of groundwater recharge. Precipitation patterns, soil properties and vegetation largely control the rate and timing of groundwater recharge. The interactions between climate, soil and mountain vegetation thus have important implications for the groundwater supply. This study took place in the Sacramento Mountains, which is the recharge area for multiple regional aquifers in southern New Mexico. The stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen were used to determine whether infiltration of precipitation is homogeneously distributed in the soil or whether it is partitioned among soil-water ‘compartments’, from which trees extract water for transpiration as a function of the season. The results indicate that “immobile” or “slow” soil water, which is derived primarily from snowmelt, infiltrates soils in a relatively uniform fashion, filling small pores in the shallow soils. “Mobile” or “fast” soil water, which is mostly associated with summer thunderstorms, infiltrates very quickly through macropores and along preferential flow paths, evading evaporative loss. It was found that throughout the entire year, trees principally use immobile water derived from snowmelt mixed to differing degrees with seasonally available mobile-water sources. The replenishment of these different water pools in soils appears to depend on initial soil-water content, the manner in which the water was introduced to the soil (snowmelt versus intense thunderstorms), and the seasonal variability of the precipitation and evapotranspiration. These results have important implications for the effect of climate change on recharge mechanisms in the Sacramento Mountains.     

河南刘山岩铜锌矿床石英中流体包裹体类型及FIP新资料

在刘山岩矿床矿石和围岩石英所含的流体包裹体中,发现2种新类型流体包裹体,即后期变形阶段的淡化水流体包裹体和成岩早期的NaCl子矿物多相包裹体,并重点研究了流体包裹体面(FIP)中包裹体发育情况.块状铜锌矿石、条带状矿石和糜棱岩化石英角斑岩中FIP特别发育,通常FIP以高角度与石英的拉长方向相交(或垂直于岩石的叶理面).FIP中大多数流体包裹体具有中温(均一温度120~220 ℃)、中盐度(3.4%~14.5%).更重要的是:FIP中普遍含有低盐度(3.4%~6.4%),部分甚至含有更低盐度(0.2%~1.7%)的淡化水流体包裹体,这表明淡化水流体(或大气降水)在造山变形后期曾经参与过FIP古流体的活动.     

Mineral growth in melt conduits as a mechanism for igneous layering in shallow arc plutons: mineral chemistry of Fisher Lake orbicules and comb layers (Sierra Nevada,USA)

Different processes have been proposed to explain the variety of igneous layering in plutonic rocks. To constrain the mechanisms of emplacement and crystallization of ascending magma batches in shallow plutons, we have studied comb layers and orbicules from the Fisher Lake Pluton, Northern Sierra Nevada. Through a detailed study of the mineralogy and bulk chemistry of 70 individual layers, we show that comb layers and orbicule rims show no evidence of forming through a self-organizing, oscillatory crystallization process, but represent crystallization fronts resulting from in situ crystallization and extraction of evolved melt fractions during decompression-driven crystallization, forming a plagioclase-dominated cres-cumulate at the mm- to m-scale. We propose that the crystal content of the melt and the dynamics of the magmatic system control the mechanisms responsible for vertical igneous layering in shallow reservoirs. As comb layers crystallize on wall rocks, the higher thermal gradients will increase the diversity of comb layering, expressed by inefficient melt extraction, thereby forming amphibole comb layers and trapped apatite + quartz saturated evolved melt fractions. High-An plagioclase (An₉₀–An_97.5) is a widespread phase in Fisher lake comb layers and orbicule rims. We show that a combination of cooling rate, latent heat of crystallization and pressure variations may account for high-An plagioclase in shallow melt extraction zones.     

The composition and role of the fluid in migmatites: a fluid inclusion study of the Front Range rocks

Monophase negative-crystal shaped CO₂ inclusions occurring isolated, in small clusters, or in well-healed intragranular fractures are common in the leucosome quartz of the 1700m.y.-old migmatites from the east-central Colorado Front Range. They are, however, quite rare in the mafic selvage and paleosome (host rock) quartz. The mode of occurrence suggests that these are the earliest inclusions to form. In addition to the difference in abundance of the inclusions, there is a difference in CO₂-density distribution between migmatitic zones. The temperatures of homogenization for the leucosome inclusions range and +l°C from –67° C to +20° C with two maxima (at –21° C) while those for the paleosome and selvage inclusions are –37° C to +20° C with a single maximum at + 5° C. These differences between the migmatitic zones which occur on the scale of a few centimeters suggest that the formation of these inclusions was related to the migmatization process. The densities corresponding to the Th maxima are appropriate for the P-T conditions for migmatization estimated from the mineral geobarometer/geothermometer. These inclusions must contain nearly pure CO₂, as their final melting temperatures (–56.5° to –57.2° C) are very close to that of the triple point of CO₂. Their composition also was confirmed by Raman spectroscopic analyses.It has been proposed by other workers that CO₂ fluid in the inclusions could form from an H₂O-CO₂ fluid when H₂O is partitioned into the silicate melt. Such partitioning should result in some early H₂O-rich inclusions: H₂O must be released as the melt crystallizes. As found in migmatites from other areas, most aqueous inclusions in the Front Range rocks are obviously much younger than the early CO₂ ones. However, early H₂O-rich fluid may still be preserved, at least in three ways: (A) in rare, isolated or clustered inclusions within quartz inclusions in feldspar; (B) as inclusions in microcline porphyroblasts; (C) in hydrous alteration products of feldspar. (A) contain dilute fluids, 1 to 6 wt% NaCl equivalent. The densities of (A) as well as those of the early CO₂ inclusions found in the quartz inclusions in feldspar are appropriate for the range of P — T conditions estimated for migmatization. These early inclusions must have been preserved because of protected environment. Inclusions (B), found to contain H₂O (and possibly CO₂) by infrared analyses, must be early because they are absent from recrystallized grains. (B) and (C) are much more common in the leucosome than in the other zones suggesting that they are related to migmatization process. The concentration of early CO₂ inclusions in the leucosome is consistent with the model of migmatization in which fluid concentration in the leucosome was a cause of melting.     

The origin and evolution of skarn-forming fluids from the Phu Lon deposit,northern Loei Fold Belt,Thailand: Evidence from fluid inclusion and sulfur isotope studies

The Phu Lon skarn Cu–Au deposit is located in the northern Loei Fold Belt (LFB), Thailand. It is hosted by Devonian volcano-sedimentary sequences intercalated with limestone and marble units, intruded by diorite and quartz monzonite porphyries. Phu Lon is a calcic skarn with both endoskarn and exoskarn facies. In both skarn facies, andradite and diopside comprise the main prograde skarn minerals, whereas epidote, chlorite, tremolite, actinolite and calcite are the principal retrograde skarn minerals.Four types of fluid inclusions in garnet were distinguished: (1) liquid-rich inclusions; (2) daughter mineral-bearing inclusions; (3) salt-saturated inclusions; and (4) vapor-rich inclusions. Epidote contains only one type of fluid inclusion: liquid-rich inclusions. Fluid inclusions associated with garnet (prograde skarn stage) display high homogenization temperatures and moderate salinities (421.6–468.5 °C; 17.4–23.1 wt% NaCl equiv.). By contrast, fluid inclusions associated with epidote (retrograde skarn stage) record lower homogenization temperatures and salinities (350.9–399.8 °C; 0.5–8 wt% NaCl equiv.). These data suggest a possible mixing of saline magmatic fluids with external, dilute fluid sources (e.g., meteoric fluids), as the system cooled. Some fluid inclusions in garnet contain hematite daughters, suggesting an oxidizing magmatic environment. Sulfur isotope determinations on sulfide minerals from both the prograde and retrograde stages show a uniform and narrow range of δ³⁴S values (?2.6 to ?1.1 ‰ δ³⁴S), suggesting that the ore-forming fluid contained sulfur of orthomagmatic origin. Overall, the Phu Lon deposit is interpreted as an oxidized Cu–Au skarn based on the mineralogy and fluid inclusion characteristics.     

Hydrothermal alteration and fluid inclusion study of the Lower Cretaceous porphyry Cu–Au deposit of Tiámaro, Michoacán, Mexico

The Tiámaro deposit in Michoacán state has been dated as Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian), though most of the porphyry deposits in central Mexico were dated or have an attributed Eocene–Oligocene age. The host rocks belong to a volcanoplutonic complex overlain by red conglomerates. These rocks were intruded by pre-Valanginian plutonic and hypabissal rocks. Propylitic, phyllic, and argillic alteration assemblages developed, and their superimposition draws the evolution of the deposit. Stage I is represented by propylitic assemblages, stage II contains the main ore forming stockworks and both phyllic and argillic assemblages, and stage III contains late carbonatization assemblages. The obtained temperatures and salinities from inclusion fluids are low for a porphyry-type deposit, but we interpret that the known part of the deposit represents the shallow portion of a bigger deposit. The evolution of mineralizing fluids draws a dilution trend of brines from “porphyry-like” to “epithermal-like” stages. The richest ore zone is roughly located between the 300 and 350 °C isotherms, though unnoticed resources may occur at depth.     

A comparative fluid inclusion study of the Waterville and Sangerville (Vassalboro) Formations,south-central Maine

 Petrologic and oxygen isotope data indicate that water-rich fluids infiltrated metasedimentary rocks of the Waterville and Sangerville (formally Vassalboro) Formations, south-central Maine, during peak metamorphism, and depleted Sangerville rocks in alkalis but not equivalent Waterville rocks. Fluid inclusion data from two outcrops, ∼1 km apart, one of the Waterville and the other of the Sangerville Formations, suggest a cause for the geochemical difference between the two units. Postulated peak metamorphic inclusions, the texturally earliest of aqueous inclusions in the metasediments, approximate the water-rich compositions of peak fluids predicted by mineral-fluid equilibria, and have average salinity in the Sangerville Formation ∼ three times that of equivalent Waterville inclusions. The higher salinity in the Sangerville fluids could explain the greater alkali depletion in these rocks. Probable pre-peak or prograde inclusions are preserved in metasediments as the texturally earliest carbonic inclusions which contain CO₂, CH₄, N₂±H₂O, as determined by microthermometry and Raman spectrometry. They may have formed by breakdown of organic matter. Probable retrograde inclusions occur as texturally late aqueous inclusions in healed fractures with salinity ranges indistinguishable between the two formations. Synmetamorphic granitic dikes present in the two outcrops were ruled out as a source for fluids in metasediments because composition and density ranges of inclusions in dikes and metasediments are fundamentally different, and because there is no correlation between the abundance or composition of inclusions in a sample and proximity to dikes. Isochores for many of the inclusions in both metasediments and dikes are not consistent with the inferred P−T conditions of their trapping, but intersect at ∼300° to 400° C and 1 to 2 kbar. The intersections probably resulted because inclusion densities continued to equilibrate during uplift and cooling until quartz became rigid. The present densities are those at the last equilibration, not the time of trapping. In contrast, the clear distinctions in inclusion compositions between dikes and between dike and country rock show that the original compositional differences generally have been preserved. Received: 4 February 1994 / Accepted: 22 June 1994     

Oceanographic and eustatic control of carbonate platform evolution and sequence stratigraphy on the Cretaceous (Valanginian–Campanian) passive margin,northern Gulf of Mexico

An integrated sequence stratigraphic study based on outcrop, core and wireline log data documents the combined impact of Cretaceous eustacy and oceanic anoxic events on carbonate shelf morphology and facies distributions in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The diverse facies and abundant data of the Comanche platform serve as a nearly complete global reference section and provide a sensitive record of external processes affecting Cretaceous platform development. Regional cross‐sections across the shoreline to shelf‐margin profile provide a detailed record of mixed carbonate–siliciclastic strata for the Hauterivian to lower Campanian stages (ca 136 to 80 Ma). The study window on the slowly subsiding passive margin allows the stratigraphic response to external forcing mechanisms to be isolated from regional structural processes. Three second‐order supersequences comprised of eight composite sequences are recognized in the Valanginian–Barremian, the Aptian–Albian and the Cenomanian–Campanian. The Valanginian–Barremian supersequence transitioned from a siliciclastic ramp to carbonate rimmed shelf and is a product of glacial ice accumulation and melting, as well as variable rates of mid‐ocean ridge volcanism. The Aptian–Albian supersequence chronicles the drowning and recovery of the platform surrounding oceanic anoxic events 1a and 1b. The Cenomanian–Campanian supersequence similarly documents shelf drowning following oceanic anoxic event 1d, after which the platform evolved to a deep‐subtidal system consisting of anoxic/dysoxic shale and chalk in the time surrounding oceanic anoxic event 2. Each period of oceanic anoxia is associated with composite sequence maximum flooding, termination of carbonate shelf sedimentation and deposition of condensed shale units in distally steepened ramp profiles. Composite sequences unaffected by oceanic anoxic events consist of aggradational to progradational shelves with an abundance of grain‐dominated facies and shallow‐subtidal to intertidal environments. Because they are products of eustacy and global oceanographic processes, the three supersequences and most composite sequences defined in the south Texas passive margin are recognizable in other carbonate platforms and published eustatic sea‐level curves.     

Anatexis and fluid regime of the deep continental crust: New clues from melt and fluid inclusions in metapelitic migmatites from Ivrea Zone (NW Italy)

We investigate the inclusions hosted in peritectic garnet from metapelitic migmatites of the Kinzigite Formation (Ivrea Zone, NW Italy) to evaluate the starting composition of the anatectic melt and fluid regime during anatexis throughout the upper amphibolite facies, transition, and granulite facies zones. Inclusions have negative crystal shapes, sizes from 2 to 10 μm and are regularly distributed in the core of the garnet. Microstructural and micro‐Raman investigations indicate the presence of two types of inclusions: crystallized silicate melt inclusions (i.e., nanogranitoids, NI), and fluid inclusions (FI). Microstructural evidence suggests that FI and NI coexist in the same cluster and are primary (i.e., were trapped simultaneously during garnet growth). FI have similar compositions in the three zones and comprise variable proportions of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂, commonly with siderite, pyrophyllite, and kaolinite, suggesting a COHN composition of the trapped fluid. The mineral assemblage in the NI contains K‐feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, muscovite, chlorite, graphite and, rarely, calcite. Polymorphs such as kumdykolite, cristobalite, tridymite, and less commonly kokchetavite, were also found. Rehomogenized NI from the different zones show that all the melts are leucogranitic but have slightly different compositions. In samples from the upper amphibolite facies, melts are less mafic (FeO + MgO = 2.0–3.4 wt%), contain 860–1700 ppm CO₂ and reach the highest H₂O contents (6.5–10 wt%). In the transition zone melts have intermediate H₂O (4.8–8.5 wt%), CO₂ (457–1534 ppm) and maficity (FeO + MgO = 2.3–3.9 wt%). In contrast, melts at granulite facies reach highest CaO, FeO + MgO (3.2–4.7 wt%), and CO₂ (up to 2,400 ppm), with H₂O contents comparable (5.4–8.3 wt%) to the other two zones. Our results represent the first clear evidence for carbonic fluid‐present melting in the Ivrea Zone. Anatexis of metapelites occurred through muscovite and biotite breakdown melting in the presence of a COH fluid, in a situation of fluid–melt immiscibility. The fluid is assumed to have been internally derived, produced initially by devolatilization of hydrous silicates in the graphitic protolith, then as a result of oxidation of carbon by consumption of Fe³⁺‐bearing biotite during melting. Variations in the compositions of the melts are interpreted to result from higher T of melting. The H₂O contents of the melts throughout the three zones are higher than usually assumed for initial H₂O contents of anatectic melts. The CO₂ contents are highest at granulite facies, and show that carbon‐contents of crustal magmas are not negligible at high T. The activity of H₂O of the fluid dissolved in granitic melts decreases with increasing metamorphic grade. Carbonic fluid‐present melting of the deep continental crust represents, together with hydrate‐breakdown melting reactions, an important process in the origin of crustal anatectic granitoids.     

新疆准噶尔北缘玉勒肯哈腊苏铜(钼)矿床流体包裹体和稳定同位素研究

玉勒肯哈腊苏中型斑岩型铜(钼)矿主要赋存在闪长玢岩中,有少量矿化产在北塔山组火山岩及似斑状黑云母石英二长岩中。矿化呈细脉状、细脉-浸染状和浸染状。围岩蚀变主要为钾化、硅化、绢云母化、石膏化、磁铁矿化、绿泥石化、绿帘石化。矿床的形成经历了斑岩期、剪切变形期和表生期,铜和钼矿化主要形成于斑岩期的硫化物-钾硅酸盐阶段和辉钼矿阶段。石英和方解石中的流体包裹体可划分为H2O-NaCl型和H2O-CO2(±CH4/N2)-NaCl型。硫化物-钾硅酸盐阶段的成矿温度为141~500℃,主要集中在200~340℃;流体的w(NaCleq)为2.96%~14.97%;流体的密度为0.60~0.98 g/cm3。碳酸盐阶段的流体以中-低温度(140~320℃)和低盐度〔w(NaCleq)为2.74%~10.61%〕为特征。硫化物的δ34S值集中于-4.5‰~-0.1‰,峰值为-3.5‰,表明硫来自深源岩浆。石英和方解石的δ18OSMOW值为9.1‰~13.2‰,δ18OH2O值为2.05‰~6.28‰,δD值为-120‰~-97‰,表明主成矿阶段的成矿流体主要是岩浆水,混合有大气降水;碳酸盐阶段的流体主要为大气降水,混合有岩浆水。成矿时代为中泥盆世〔(373.9±2.2 Ma)〕,成矿作用与闪长玢岩的侵入有关。温度和压力的降低导致流体沸腾,同时,水-岩交换反应、流体成分的改变等在铜钼成矿过程中起着主导作用。     

A 15 000‐year record of climate change in northern New Mexico,USA, inferred from isotopic and elemental contents of bog sediments

Elemental (C, N, Pb) and isotopic (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) measurements of cored sediment from a small bog in northern New Mexico reveal changes in climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Abrupt increases in Pb concentration and δ¹³C values ca. 14 420 cal. YBP indicate significant runoff to the shallow lake that existed at that time. Weathering and transport of local volcanic rocks resulted in the delivery of Pb‐bearing minerals to the basin, while a ¹³C‐enriched terrestrial vegetation source increased the δ¹³C values of the sedimentary material. Wet conditions developed over a 300 a period and lasted for a few hundred years. The Younger Dryas period (ca. 12 700–11 500 cal. YBP) caused a reduction in terrestrial productivity reflected in decreasing C/N values, δ¹⁵N values consistently greater than 0‰ and low organic content. By contrast, aquatic productivity increased during the second half of this period, evidenced by increasing δ¹³C values at the time of highest abundance of algae. Dry conditions ca. 8 000–6 000 cal. YBP were characterised by low organic carbon content and high Pb concentrations, the latter suggesting enhanced erosion and aeolian transport of volcanic rock. The range in δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N and C/N values in the sedimentary record fall within the range of modern plants, except during the periods of runoff and drought. The sedimentary record provides evidence of natural climate variability in northern New Mexico, including short‐ (multi‐centennial) and long‐(millennial) term episodes during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

超高压变质流体的组成与演化：中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔岩心的流体包裹体研究

中国大陆科学钻探工程主孔位于大别-苏鲁超高压变质带东段的江苏东海县,孔深为5100m,其上部2050m钻遇的岩石主要为榴辉岩,其次是正、副片麻岩、石榴橄榄(辉石)岩以及少量片岩和石英岩。它们经历了超高压变质作用和随后的角闪岩相退变质作用。通过对上述各种岩石的详细流体包体观察和RAMAN光谱分析,发现了五种不同成分的流体包裹体:(1)中-低盐度水溶液包裹体(Ⅰ型),呈原生的孤立和小群存在于榴辉岩和片麻岩锆石的岩浆核和超高压变质边缘,或存在于绿辉石、黝帘石和被绿辉石包裹的方解石和石英中,偶尔呈出溶包裹体产于磷灰石中,而主要沿绿辉石、石榴石、蓝晶石、黝帘石和石英等矿物的穿颗粒裂隙分布;也呈孤立和小群产于切穿榴辉岩的方解石脉和片麻岩重结晶石榴石和绿帘石中;(2)CO2(±CH4)-H2O包裹体(Ⅱ型),存在于锆石的岩浆核和变质边缘,或沿石英裂隙分布;(3)含石盐±SiO2±CaCO3的复杂盐水包裹体(Ⅲ型),呈原生流体包裹体产在榴辉岩的绿辉石中,与石英出溶棒一起平行于绿辉石的C轴分布,或产在石榴辉石岩透辉石的晶内裂隙中;(4)富CO2包裹体(Ⅳ型),在榴辉岩的石英中随机分布;(5)单气相包裹体(Ⅴ型),沿各种矿物穿颗粒裂隙分布。流体包裹体产状及其与捕获时代关系表明,Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型包裹体可以出现在超高压变质岩原岩、峰期变质和退变质各阶段。Ⅲ型包裹体出现在超高压变质岩的早期减压退变质阶段。而Ⅳ型和Ⅴ型包裹体主要形成于角闪岩相及更晚的退变质阶段。本研究的主要认识是:(1)低盐度H2O和CO2流体在进变质、超高压变质和退变质作用各阶段均有存在,这表明在整个超高压变质演化过程中流体具有继承性。(2)超高压变质岩原岩和角闪岩相退变质岩中存在较丰富的流体包裹体,但在超高压峰期捕获的流体包裹体却很少见,这表明丰富的原岩流体或在超高压进变质过程中被排出岩石体系,或进入含水超高压矿物和结合进名义无水矿物。(3)复杂成分原生流体包裹体的发现证明在超高压变质峰期后的早期减压退变质阶段存在一种高盐度似熔体流体,名义上的无水矿物在超高压条件下可以保存相当量的流体,并在退变质过程中分离出来,产生流体-岩石相互作用。(4)角闪岩阶段的流体包裹体具有各种不同的化学组成,且在局部富集,推测可能有部分外部加入的流体。(5)流体包裹体类型、丰度和成分在不同岩石类型中和不同钻孔深度都存在明显差异,表明超高压变质作用过程中没有大规模的透入性流体活动。(6)根据超高压变质峰期包裹体等容线得到的压力值大大低于根据矿物温压计获得的近峰期变质压力,这表明包裹体的密度在捕获后发生了改变。这些改变是由于流体渗漏、部分爆裂和流体-岩石相互作用所引起。