Mountain influence on the areal characteristics of types of convective precipitation

Summary The unique detailed precipitation data from a dense network operated in Serbia during the project of hail suppression have been used to define the relationship between a convective storm and associated precipitation.The data analysed were from 1982–1986 and from 120 firing stations in mountainous terrain and 115 in flat areas. The firing stations are those manned 24 hours a day by cooperative observers. The average distance between sites is 5 km.Detailed maps of the frequency of different precipitation types at all points of the network are plotted. A comparison is made between the results obtained from both mountainous and flat land networks. It is shown that alternate changes of the local maxima and minima of rain and hail shower frequency exist for the air mass (Cb) clouds. The air mass tracks from a NW direction in the river valley where it is flanked by orography.With 8 Figures     

Investigation of the impact of dynamic factors on Cb cloud development in Saudi Arabia

Changes are analyzed of a Cb cloud characteristics due to its merging with feeder clouds, on the data on a long-living Cb cloud in Saudi Arabia on July 4, 2008. Continuous radar and satellite observations of the cloud are carried out during 6 h. The Cb cloud development is also numerically simulated using a nonstationary 1½ model. It is found that the processes of Cb cloud merging with feeder clouds developing in its vicinities affect significantly the Cb cloud development. This impact demonstrates itself in longer duration of the Cb cloud life span, increasing top height, reflectivity, precipitation duration and intensity. Modification of the feeder clouds can accelerate their development, which eventually can affect notably the Cb cloud.     

Complex study of characteristics of a Cb cloud developing over the Arabian Peninsula under high dew point deficit in the atmosphere. Part 1. Field observations and numerical modeling

Basing on airmass motion trajectory calculations over the Arabian Peninsula on April 10, 2008, it can be assumed that in the lower and middle troposphere, zones with increased air moisture exist due to air inflow from the Red Sea. As a result, mesoscale volumes of dry and moist air are neighboring, though large-scale field is comparatively homogeneous with low humidity. In the mesoscale zones, intense thunderstorm and hailstorm Cb clouds developed, whose characteristics and evolution are studied in the paper. Continuous radar observations of the clouds are carried out during 5 hours. Numerical simulation of the cloud evolution is performed with nonstationary 1.5-dimensional model. It is noted that under the mentioned atmospheric conditions, in the area under consideration, heavy rain and hail from the Cb clouds are observed. The main factors of their origination are high thermal instability of the atmosphere and moist air inflow from outside.     

Numerical simulation of Cb cloud vorticity

Vertical vorticity characteristics within individual cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud moving over complex terrain are investigated by cloud-resolving mesoscale model. Orography impact on vorticity is recognized by comparison of its characteristics within the storm moving over flat terrain under the same other conditions. In present study, two cases are considered: complex terrain case (referred to as CT case) and flat terrain case (referred to as FT case). A sensitivity study shows that orographical effects on vorticity are important. Main findings are:

– For CT case vortices produced by convective tilting of horizontal vortices are closer to each other and more stretched in form owing to valley configuration. The vortex with positive vorticity is mainly stronger in magnitude compared to its negative counterpart.

– Magnitudes of vorticities for CT case are greater at lowest levels and initial time intervals compared to those for FT case.

– For CT case the vortices with opposite signs of vorticity produced by precipitation appear later than in FT case. Their duration is shorter and they are weaker in intensity compared to those formed within a cloud over flat terrain.

– Complex terrain intensifies the splitting of simulated cloud.

A numerical case study of a cold air outbreak over East Asia during late spring

Summary A case study of a late spring cold air outbreak associated with heavy rainfall and snow storms over East Asia is carried out with a numerical model. This was the most severe case over northern China in 50 years. In the lower troposphere, the evolution of the edge anticyclone and the northerly low-level orographic jet east of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are well simulated in the ECMWF limited area model but the associated cold surge is under predicted. In the experiments with envelope and valley filled orography, results are improved. Neither cold surge nor strong frontogenesis is simulated in a no latent heating experiment, indicating that the feedback of latent heat release is quite essential to the burst of cold air in this case.With 9 Figures     

Effects of prescribed initial cloud droplet spectra on convective cloud and precipitation developments under different thermodynamic conditions: A modeling and observational study

A two-dimensional cloud model with bin microphysics was used to investigate the effects of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations and thermodynamic conditions on convective cloud and precipitation developments. Two different initial cloud droplet spectra were prescribed based on the total CCN concentrations of maritime (300 cm^− 3) and continental (1000 cm^− 3) air masses, and the model was run on eight thermodynamic conditions obtained from observational soundings. Six-hourly sounding data and 1-hourly precipitation data from two nearby weather stations in Korea were analyzed for the year 2002 to provide some observational support for the model results.For one small Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) ( 300 J kg^− 1) sounding, the maritime and continental differences were incomparably large. The crucial difference was the production of ice phase hydrometeors in the maritime cloud and only water drops in the continental cloud. Ice phase hydrometeors and intrinsically large cloud drops of the maritime cloud eventually lead to significant precipitation. Meanwhile negligible precipitation developed from the continental cloud. For the three other small CAPE soundings, generally weak convective clouds developed but the maritime and continental clouds were of the same phases (both warm or both cold) and their differences were relatively small.Model runs with the four large CAPE ( 3000 J kg^− 1) soundings demonstrated that the depth between the freezing level (FL) and the lifting condensation level (LCL) was crucial to determine whether a cloud becomes a cold cloud or not, which in turn was found to be a crucial factor to enhance cloud invigoration with the additional supply of freezing latent heat. For two large CAPE soundings, FL–LCL was so deep that penetration of FL was prohibitive, and precipitation was only mild in the maritime clouds and negligible in the continental clouds. Two other soundings of similarly large CAPE had small FL–LCL, and both the maritime and continental clouds became cold clouds. Precipitation was strong for both but much more so in the maritime clouds, while the maximum updraft velocity and the cloud top were slightly higher in continental clouds. Although limited to small CAPE cases, more precipitation for smaller FL–LCL for a selected group of precipitation and thermodynamic sounding data from Korea was in support of these model results in its tendency.These results clearly demonstrated that the CCN effects on cloud and precipitation developments critically depended on the given thermodynamic conditions and not just the CAPE but the entire structure of the thermodynamic profiles had to be taken into account.     

伊犁河谷汛期一场短时强降水雨滴谱特征分析

利用常规地面、高空资料、新一代天气雷达资料、雨滴谱资料,对2012年8月3日发生在伊犁河谷的一次较大范围暴雨的天气背景、雷达回波特征和降雨微物理特征等进行深入分析。结果表明,200hPa西西伯利亚西风槽、500hPa中亚低涡和地面冷锋是这次强降雨过程的主要影响系统。河谷喇叭口地形对气流的机械挤压、东高西低地形对对流的触发、地形强迫抬升对对流和降水的增强具有重要影响。这场降水过程属于积层混合云降水,其中大面积的层状云中嵌有多个对流云团,这些云团连接在一起就构成了对流性雨带,通过对暴雨雨滴谱演变分析得出,这次暴雨主要降水由对流性云团造成,对流云团微物理结构存在明显的不均匀性,其中存在多个强降水中心,其水平尺度多维持在10km左右,持续时间维持在5分钟到10分钟之内,降水集中且雨滴数浓度较高,一般在1000m-1个以上,雨滴谱宽及分布差异很大,小于1mm粒子数浓度很高,对雨强的贡献占两成以上。     

陕西东南部一次伴有雷暴的暴雪天气分析

利用常规观测、多普勒天气雷达和ERA—Interim再分析资料(0.25°×0.25°),对2016年11月22日陕西东南部地区一次伴有雷暴的暴雪天气过程进行诊断分析。结果表明:(1)此次暴雪是在低层东路回流冷空气与中层暖湿气流共同作用下形成的,700 hPa存在强的风向风速辐合,辐合区前部16 m/s的西南急流,为暴雪产生提供了有利的动力和水汽条件。急流加强是降雪增幅的主要原因。(2)冷季、强的锋区和低空急流、冷垫、逆温层、锋区之上湿的中性到条件不稳定层结、强切变低CAPE、雷达带状回波是此类天气预报中需要关注的特征。(3)整体层状云降水中,局地对流性云团旺盛发展,是此次暴雪的云系特征,暴雪发生在对流云团加强西伸、移速减缓的时段;与本地暖季相比,暴雪对流云团的面积较小,最大反射率因子所在的高度较高。(4)由动力锋生产生的次级环流上升支促使冷垫之上的暖湿气流快速上升,触发条件对称不稳定能量释放,使气块在逆温层之上获得正浮力,是暴雪发生并伴有雷暴的主要物理机制。     

2008年1月南方一次冰冻天气中冻雨区的层结和云物理特征

2008年1月中下旬, 我国南方经历了四次历史罕见的冰冻雨雪天气。本文针对2008年1月25~29日的一次典型冻雨天气过程, 在实测资料、NCEP再分析资料综合分析的基础上, 利用中国气象科学研究院 (CAMS) 中尺度云分辨模式对1月28日~29日的冻雨天气过程进行了数值模拟, 研究了冰冻天气形成的大气层结及云系冻雨区云的宏微观结构特征, 初步分析了冻雨形成的云微物理过程及云物理成因。结果表明, 深厚而稳定的逆温层和低空冷层的存在是大范围冻雨出现的直接原因。此次南方冰冻过程中, 湖南和贵州两地冻雨形成的云物理机理不同, 不同冻雨区上空为两种不同类型的云, 对应两种不同的云微物理结构和大气层结结构。湖南冻雨区云层较厚, 云顶温度较低, 属于混合相云, 云中高层存在丰富的冰相粒子 (雪的比含水量最大)。湖南冻雨在 "冷—暖—冷" 层结下, 通过 "冰相融化过程" 形成, 即在锋面之上的对流层中层水汽辐合中心内形成的雪, 从高空落入暖层, 雪融化形成雨, 再下落到冷层后, 形成过冷雨滴, 最后接触到温度低于 0℃的物体或降落到地面上, 迅速冻结形成冻雨。而贵州冻雨区云层较薄, 云顶温度较高, 属于暖云, 中高层基本无冰相粒子, 低层为云水和雨水 (云水的比含水量最大)。贵州冻雨是在 "暖—冷" 层结下通过 "过冷暖雨过程" 形成的。即水汽沿锋面抬升, 在对流层中低层的水汽辐合中心内, 经过冷却凝结成云滴, 通过碰并云滴增长的雨滴下落到低空冷层, 形成的过冷却雨滴直接冻结形成冻雨。     

Thermal radiative fluxes through inhomogeneous cloud fields: a sensitivity study using a new stochastic cloud generator

We analyze the effects of flat and bumpy top, fractional and internally inhomogeneous cloud layers on large area-averaged thermal radiative fluxes. Inhomogeneous clouds are generated by a new stochastic model: the tree-driven mass accumulation process (tdMAP). This model is able to provide stratocumulus and cumulus cloud fields with properties close to those observed in real clouds. A sensitivity study of cloud parameters is done by analyzing differences between 3D fluxes simulated by the spherical harmonic discrete ordinate method and three “standard” models likely to be used in general circulation models: plane-parallel homogeneous cloud model (PPH), PPH with fractional cloud coverage model (FCPPH) and independent pixel approximation model (IPA). We show that thermal fluxes are strong functions of fractional cloud coverage, mean optical depth, mean geometrical thickness and cloud base altitude. Fluctuations of “in-cloud” horizontal variability in optical depth and cloud-top bumps have negligible effects in the whole. We also showed that PPH, FCPPH and IPA models are not suitable to compute thermal fluxes of flat top fractional inhomogeneous cloud layer, except for completely overcast cloud. This implies that horizontal transport of photon at thermal wavelengths is important when cloudy cells are separated by optically thin regions.     

湖南秋季积层混合云系飞机人工增雨作业方法

统计分析2007—2016年秋季湖南省长沙市地面气象观测资料、湖南省飞机人工增雨作业资料, 得到湖南省秋季积层混合云系的降水分布情况、一般结构特征和相应的飞机增雨作业方法。使用多普勒天气雷达、GRAPES_CAMS数值模式和中小尺度气象站网等资料对典型作业天气过程进行云降水物理和数值模拟分析, 采用成对对流云和基于TREC算法的回波跟踪等方法进行作业效果评估。归纳得到湖南省秋季积层混合云系人工增雨作业条件判别的12个宏微观指标, 探讨在使用运7飞机、碘化银烟条作业装备条件下, 开展飞机增雨作业的最佳催化时机、部位和剂量。针对积层混合云系中的降水性层状云系、积云对流泡, 飞机增雨适宜作业的区域、播撒高度和催化剂量:在过冷高层云的-15~-5℃层, 播撒达到30 L-1的人工冰晶浓度; 在过冷积云的-15~-7℃层, 静力催化使冰晶浓度达到30 L-1或动力催化达到100 L-1。这些方法在实践中取得了较好的人工增雨作业效果。     

诱发四川冕宁“6.26”山洪灾害的突发性暴雨特征及其形成机制

基于多源观测、再分析和对流可分辨模式预报资料,运用物理量诊断、标准化异常、相似过程比较等方法,分析了2020年6月26日四川冕宁突发性暴雨过程的特征和形成机制。结果表明：（1）该过程是一次伴有多条带状γ中尺度对流系统、“列车效应”产生极端小时雨量的局地突发性暴雨过程,其对流回波质心较低,对流云团具有中尺度对流复合体云团特征;（2）冕宁北部的对流冷池出流与较强的谷地偏南气流相遇形成的辐合抬升构成了对流的触发机制;（3）川西南低空偏南气流具有阶段性增强特征并提供了持续的暖湿空气输送,其在过程初期与下山冷池的相互作用及后期与盆地西部南下冷空气的汇合,使对流反复在冕宁站西侧和南侧初生,并在下游形成“列车效应”;（4）对比历史相似过程,环境大气的对流有效位能等物理量具有更显著的异常和异常持续性;（5）川西南北部的高海拔地形对延缓冷空气进入安宁河谷和维持河谷内的不稳定层结有显著作用,并且该区域地形强迫抬升形成了河谷上游地区潜在的对流触发条件。最后给出了此次暴雨过程形成机制的概念模型。     

一次高原强降水过程及其云物理结构的数值模拟

本文利用中尺度WRF数值模式,对2010年8月7—8日发生在青藏高原东部一次强降水过程进行数值模拟,利用常规观测资料、FY卫星云图和数值模拟结果对此次强降水过程的宏微观演变特征和降水机制进行分析。本次模拟选用Milbrandt-Yau(MY)微物理方案,有较为完整的双参数计算过程,较为全面地考虑了各类云物理过程,对云微物理结构的描述和处理精细而复杂。结果表明,此次强对流降水发生在副热带高压与南亚高压相连、中高纬短波槽分裂南下、并与西南暖湿气流相遇形成低涡切变线的有利天气形势下,西南暖湿气流带来大量水汽、降水区存在大量不稳定能量、以及低层辐合高层辐散的高低空配置为暴雨发生发展提供了必要条件。WRF模式较好地模拟出了此次强降水过程的降水落区、降水中心和降水量级,对青海平安和甘南上空云团合并过程、强对流云团范围也模拟较好。对云微物理结构的分析结果表明,此次对流云降水为冷云降水,暖层浅薄,冰相粒子丰富,其中霰粒对过冷水的碰冻能力最强,使得其含量远大于冰雪晶含量,其融化是雨水的主要来源。雪晶含量最少,或与其碰冻过冷水能力较弱有关。     

复杂地形下北京雷暴新生地点变化的加密观测研究

2008 年8 月14 日北京发生了雷暴群形式的局地暴雨,雷暴新生地点复杂多变,形成了多个γ 中尺度的强降水中心。本文利用近年来北京气象现代化建设取得的加密地面自动站、多普勒雷达、风廓线仪、微波辐射计等多种新型高时空分辨率观测资料及雷达四维变分同化系统（VDRAS）反演资料,通过精细分析地面（边界层）风场、温度场等的演变特征,讨论了雷暴新生地点变化的机制。结果表明:复杂地形与雷暴冷池出流作用相结合,主导了雷暴新生地点的变化,进而影响γ 中尺度强降水中心的变化;天气尺度高低空涡、槽的配合不一致,并且系统移动缓慢,以及对流层低层的弱的环境垂直风切变,是雷暴冷池结合复杂地形发挥雷暴新生地点主导作用的重要前提;复杂地形使得冷空气在一定范围内流动,在边界层产生碰撞和辐合,起到触发和增强对流作用,并使得对流风暴的形态和走向与地形呈现出紧密相关性;一定强度的冷池出流、边界层前期的暖湿空气和对流不稳定能量的积累,是冷池出流触发雷暴新生和演变的必要条件;北京周边地区的雷暴,通过其雷暴冷池出流沿着沟谷地形或向平原地区流动,与北京山谷或城区的边界层暖湿空气形成辐合抬升机制,触发雷暴新生。     

一次东北冷涡暴雨过程中尺度及云物理特征分析

本文利用WRF数值模式对2019年7月16日发生在东北冷涡底部的暴雨过程进行数值模拟,使用常规观测资料、卫星云图和数值模拟结果对此次暴雨过程的中尺度及云物理特征进行分析。结果表明：东西两个暴雨区分别由MCC和MCS活动造成的。MCC发展的环境具有低层更暖湿高层更干冷,对流不稳定更强,垂直风切变更大的特点,有利于酝酿更强的风暴。降水回波与地面辐合线同时出现,共同移动,两者有正反馈作用。与西部回波相对应的辐合线辐合更强,北侧偏北风风速更大,移动更快,对应的强降水范围更小、时段更集中。而东部暴雨区相对应的辐合线两侧风速均较小,呈准静止态,回波长时间在辐合线附近维持,列车效应形成暴雨,对应的强降水范围较大、持续时间更长。降水过程中霰和雪是对流云中主要的降水粒子,并通过冷云增长；雨水的增长主要依赖于霰和雪的融化,其次还有暖云中云水的碰并增长。     

Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes

Summary A model for the canopy – planetary boundary layer flow and scalar transport based on E- closure was applied to estimate footprint for CO₂ fluxes over different inhomogeneous landscapes. Hypothetical heterogeneous vegetation patterns – forest with clear-cuts as well as hypothetical heterogeneous relief – a bell-shaped valley and a ridge covered by forest were considered. The distortions of airflow caused by these heterogeneities are shown – the upwind deceleration of the flow at the ridge foot and above valley, acceleration at the crest and the flow separation with the reversed flow pattern at lee slopes of ridge and valley. The disturbances induce changes in scalar flux fields within the atmospheric surface layer comparing to fluxes for homogeneous conditions: at a fixed height the fluxes vary as a function of distance to disturbance. Correspondingly, the flux footprint estimated from model data depends on the location of the point of interest (flux measurement point) and may significantly deviate from that for a flat terrain. It is shown that proposed method could be used for the choice of optimal sensor position for flux measurements over complex terrain as well as for the interpretation of data for existing measurement sites. To illustrate the latter the method was applied for experimental site in Solling, Germany, taking into account the complex topography and vegetation heterogeneities. Results show that in certain situations (summer, neutral stratification, south or north wind) and for a certain sensor location the assumptions of idealized air flow structure could be used for measurement interpretation at this site, though in general, extreme caution should be applied when analytical footprint models are used in the interpretation of flux measurements over complex sites.     

Cross-Tropopause Mass Exchange Associated with a Tropopause Fold Event over the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau

A springtime tropopause fold event, found to be related to a cold trough intrusion from the north, was detected in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (TP) based on various observations. A nested high-resolution mesoscale model was employed to investigate the effect of orography on the stratosphere-troposphere exchange. The model was found to be able to capture plausible tropopause fold properties. The propagation of the tropopause fold changed significantly when the terrain height in the model was altered. Ho...     

Springtime cloud properties in the Taiwan Strait: synoptic controls and local processes

This paper examines the springtime cloud properties in the Taiwan Strait (TS), with emphases on their dependence on synoptic controls and local processes, using a suite of in situ and remote sensing observations. Cloud properties in the TS are inferred from a combination of MODIS and in situ observations and further classified into two synoptic conditions: continental cold air surge and frontal system. The study reveals a predominance of synoptic-scale controls in regulating the cloud properties in the TS. The sensitivity of clouds to the local thermodynamic mechanisms as well as the underlying surface conditions is fundamentally dependent on synoptic-scale flow patterns. The springtime clouds over the TS are commonly a mixture of stratocumulus and alto clouds. More precisely, there is a preponderance of stratocumulus over the strait. A preferential occupancy of stratiform alto clouds is recognized during cold air surge, whereas vertical development of cloud layers (mostly the stratocumulus) is commonly observed with frontal passage. The most distinct difference between the local clouds formation associated with the two synoptic conditions is the suppression of very low cloud and fog along with cold air surge. Stratus clouds and fog are present within the northward prefrontal airflow from warmer to colder water sites, along with an increase in stability relating to lower altitudes of boundary layer clouds. Although the rainfall occurrences are about the same for both synoptic conditions, the frontal rain amounts are larger on average.     

A study of a two-dimensional cloudiness transition during a cold air outbreak event

A two-dimensional version of a hydrostatic mesoscale model with a partial cloudiness scheme is used to study a cold air outbreak event during MASEX (Mesoscale Air-Sea Exchange experiment). The model produces a weak mesoscale circulation which is slightly advected offshore and simulates well an observed cloudiness transition zone of 80 km where the cloud cover ranges between 0 and 100%. It is shown that the cloud top entrainment instability criterion can explain the observed cloudiness phenomenon i.e., the transition from a cumulus field to a solid stratocumulus cloud layer.The usefulness of the partial cloudiness scheme is demonstrated by comparing the results to those obtained with a simple all or nothing condensation scheme. A model sensitivity study shows that the sea surface temperature and the horizontal advection speed control the surface heat and moisture fluxes and so explain the structure and horizontal extent of the cloudiness transition zone.     

地形上空边界层流中低层锋面结构的理论研究 I：冷锋、均匀地转流

文中利用一个包含地形、边界层摩擦作用的二层锋面简化模型 ,讨论了地形、边界层对冷锋锋面结构、环流的动力学影响作用问题。冷锋的倾斜主要与冷锋暖区的地转流分布、锋面移动速度、锋面与地形的相对位置有关。当冷锋位于迎风坡时 ,其坡度减小 ,位于背风坡时 ,其坡度增大。在静止冷锋存在两类不同的环流系 ,即位于大气低层、地面锋附近的反时针环流系和远离地面锋的顺时针环流系。静止冷锋位于背风坡 ,其冷域中的这支闭合环流增强 ,范围增大 ,而位于冷锋界面上的环流转向点沿锋面上移 ,暖域中沿锋面的暖空气运动范围变大。当静止冷锋位于迎风坡时 ,结果相反。冷锋移动较慢时 ,其冷域远离地面锋的这支顺时针环流主体可被地形完全阻塞在迎风坡。当静止冷锋移离地形时 ,由于地形作用可在锋面暖域、地形下游形成一个背风槽。地形对锋区的垂直运动影响主要通过地形与边界层共同作用 ,改变锋区流场辐合辐散的分布及地形强迫抬升两条途径实现。由于边界层摩擦的辐合作用 ,在地面冷锋的前缘可形成一支范围较窄、强度较大的上升运动带 ,当冷锋位于迎风坡时 ,其强度增强 ,当冷锋位于背风坡时 ,其强度减弱。当冷锋位于背风坡时 ,在暖区沿锋面上升的暖空气运动范围增大 ,可以出现沿锋面相间隔的多个上升区