Dynamic faulting under rate-dependent friction

We discuss the effects of rate-dependent friction on the propagation of seismic rupture on active faults. Several physicists using Burridge and Knopoff's box and spring model of faulting have proposed that fault complexity may arise from the spontaneous development of a self-similar stress distribution on the fault plane. If this model proves to be correct, it has important consequences for the origin of the complexity of seismic sources. In order to test these ideas on a more realistic earthquake model, we developed a new boundary integral equation method for studying rupture propagation along an antiplane fault in the presence of nonlinear rate-dependent friction. We study rupture dynamics of models with single and twin asperities. In our models, asperities are places on the fault with a higher value of prestress. Othewise all fault parameters are homogeneous. We show that for models with such asperities, a slip velocity weakening friction leads to the propagation of supersonic healing phases and to the spontaneous arrest of fracture if the prestress outside the asperities is low enough. For models with asperities, we can also observe narrow slip velocity pulses, qualitatively similar to the so-called Heaton pulses observed in some earthquake accelerograms. We also observe a complex distribution of stress after the rupture that depends on details of the initial distribution of asperities and on the details of the friction law.     

用卫星热红外信息研究关联断层活动的时空变化--以南北地震构造带为例

断层活动不是孤立的,一条断层的活动可能影响其他断层,并引起这些断层的活动,这些相互作用的断层称为关联断层.本文利用卫星热红外信息以南北地震构造带为例,分析了关联断层活动的时空变化,所使用的信息是经过处理的地表亮温残差低频分量TLOW.结果表明,在一定时段内研究区一些断层间除地震活动表现出相互呼应关系外,其地表亮温残差低频分量TLOW曲线相似,相关系数高,说明热红外信息与地震信息共同反映一个地区断层的关联活动.此外,也存在单独由地表亮温残差低频分量TLOW相关表现断层关联活动的情形,即断层间无地震活动的呼应关系,但也存在TLOW曲线的相关性,同样显示关联断层的相互作用.对TLOW的时空过程分析表明,关联活动组合可随时间发生变化.例如,1988～1994年间红河断裂与澜沧-耿马断裂、金沙江断裂等构成关联活动组合,1994～1998年又与小金河断裂、安宁河-小江断裂构成关联活动组合,这样的时空变化过程可能是地壳应力场重新分配的反映.本文的研究结果证明,卫星热红外信息有望成为研究断层相互作用的一个新的独立物理量,并将对地震动力学和构造物理学的发展有重要意义.     

Assessing current faulting behaviors and seismic risk of the Anninghe-Zemuhe fault zone from seismicity parameters

Introduction Strong and large earthquakes are prepared and generated on specific segments of active fault zones, especially on the asperity parts of the zones (Aki, 1984; Wiemer, Wyss, 1997; Wyss, et al, 2000). Therefore, both the faulting-behavior identification and the rupture segmentation mainly based on the method of active tectonics are always important aspects in active fault research (DING, et al, 1993). The purposes of the two aspects of research focus on determining fault units tha…     

Relations between surface deformation,fault geometry,seismicity, and rupture characteristics during the El Asnam (Algeria) earthquake of 10 October 1980

The El Asnam earthquake of October 10, 1980 (M_s=7.3) produced surface faulting on a northeast-trending thrust fault of 30 km length with displacements of up to 6.5 m, though average displacements were about 3 m. In addition, widespread tensional features were formed, some in clear association with folding above the thrust, and others, in an area beyond the exposure of the thrust at the surface, which may be related to buried reverse faults.The observed thrust fault is split into southern, central and northern segments. Local and teleseismic data are examined to show that the main shock nucleated at the southwest end of the fault, and propagated 12 km northeast where a second rupture of approximately equal moment occurred, continuing the faulting a further 12 km northeast along the central segment. Both ruptures nucleated at about 8–10 km depth. Displacements were largest on the central segment, where they were probably enlarged by aftershocks, including one of m_b=6.1 three hours after the main shock. The northern segment was much shorter than the other two, and showed smaller displacement.The junctions between fault segments are marked by distinct geomorphological characteristics and a change in strike of the faulting, as well as a sudden drop in the observed displacement. It appears that the rupture development is influenced by the changes in fault geometry between segments, and that such junctions or barriers have persisted through much of the late Quaternary.     

熊坡背斜构造变形与蒲江-新津断裂活动特征

熊坡背斜位于龙门山构造带东南端的成都盆地内,是龙门山逆冲推覆构造向前推挤进入盆地内部的一个主要变形区域,与其配套发育的断裂为蒲江-新津断裂,断裂与背斜褶皱之间在构造变形模式上表现出明显的一致性。在褶皱和断裂的构造变形和活动特征上,熊坡背斜南段表现为一种不对称的褶皱,向NE方向发展表现为较为宽缓的对称褶皱形态,卷入的地层主要是中生代及其以前的地层,对蒲江-新津断裂的地貌调查结果表明,断裂没有对该区域内广泛发育的冲沟Ⅰ级阶地产生影响,而对山前发育的相当于南河(岷江Ⅰ级支流)Ⅳ级阶地的洪积台地有明显的控制作用,说明断裂活动时间应该为第四纪早期,到第四纪晚期活动减弱或是趋于静止     

Spontaneous Complex Earthquake Rupture Propagation

— The historical development of spontaneous rupture propagation, starting from the landmark paper of Griffith in 1920, through to the late 1980s is traced, with particular emphasis on the work carried out at MIT in the 1970s by K. Aki and his co-workers. Numerical applications of Kostrov's method for planar shear cracks were developed by Hamano, Das and Aki. Simultaneously at MIT, Madariaga considered the radiated field of a dynamic shear crack. The further development of these ideas, for example, three-dimensional spontaneous planar faulting models, continued through the 1980s. Major insight into the maximum possible rupture speeds for earthquakes developed, with the acceptance of the theoretical possibility of supersonic rupture speeds for faults with cohesion and friction, the theoretical developments spurring the search for such observations for earthquake ruptures. Possible mechanisms by which faults stop were elucidated. It was shown that a propagating rupture can jump over barriers for cracks with a cohesive zone at its tip. Complex faulting models, namely the barrier and asperity models, and their associated radiated field developed. In the late 1980s, it was shown that “dynamic” or transient asperities can develop during the complex rupturing process. Even seemingly relatively simple physical situations, can lead to such complex rupturing processes that the usual idea of “rupture velocity” needs to be abandoned in those cases. Some of the work initiated by Aki and his co-workers, such as the details of the transition from sub-Rayleigh to super-shear speeds in inplane shear mode, and the behavior of the cohesive zone size as the crack extends, still remains the subject of research today.     

岩石错动面的非匀阻性与突发失稳

断层错动面的非匀阻效应是决定失稳型式和是否发震的重要因素之一。实验研究表明:凹凸不平的错动面只有当凹凸部在错动中被铲削至相对平直而使阻力相对均匀的情况下才可能突发失稳,并可用非匀阻系数ζ定量地表示错动面凹凸和非匀阻程度。通过比较锯切面与破裂面凹凸程度的差别,以及二者不同的应力降大小,进一步建立了一种实验确定非匀阻系数的新方法,给出了花岗闪长岩、花岗岩和石英岩破裂面的非匀阻系数与相对不平度的关系.从而为外推判断断层发震的可能性提供了依据     

由地震活动参数分析安宁河-则木河断裂带的现今活动习性及地震危险性

利用区域台网地震资料, 分析了川西安宁河-则木河断裂带不同段落的现今活动习性，进而鉴别潜在大地震危险的断裂段. 文中由异常低b值的分布圈绘出凹凸体，发展和应用了由多个地震活动参数值的组合判定断裂分段活动习性的方法，尝试了利用凹凸体段的震级频度关系参数估计特征地震的平均复发间隔. 结果表明，该研究断裂带存在5个不同现今活动习性的段落. 其中，安宁河断裂的冕宁-西昌段属于高应力下的闭锁段，其核心部分为一较大尺度的凹凸体；则木河断裂的西昌-普格段则表现为低应力下的微弱活动状态. 重新定位的震源深度分布，显示出上述闭锁段和微弱活动段的断层面轮廓. 冕宁-西昌段是未来大地震的潜在危险段. 该段从最晚的1952年6.7级地震起算，至未来特征地震的平均复发间隔估值为55～67年, 未来地震的震级估值为7.0～7.5. 本研究也初步表明，同-断裂段的活动习性可随时间动态演变.      

汶川8级大地震的地表破裂特征及分段

2008年5月12日14时28分,四川省汶川县境内发生MS8.0地震.地表破裂多以跌水、陡坎形态发育在河流沟谷或晚新生代沉积层内,位移明显.山地受崩塌、滑坡影响,位移量较难获得.发震断裂主要有三条,即北川-映秀断裂、彭县-灌县断裂和小鱼洞断裂.北川-映秀断裂地表破裂由南向北活动性质从逆冲为主逐渐转变为走滑为主,长约220 km,平均垂直位移量约3 m,按位移量沿断裂走向的变化可以分为虹口段、北川段和南坝段;彭县-灌县断裂地表破裂以逆冲活动为主,长约82 km,平均垂直位移量约1.5 m,可以划分为白鹿段和汉旺段,断裂断距分布的几何特征与北川-映秀断裂的中南段相近;小鱼洞断裂是一条新生北西走向的次级破裂,长约5.6 km,平均垂直位移量约1.5 m,调节两侧构造单元变形差异,具有捩断层特征,活动以逆(左行)走滑为主,可划分出小鱼洞段和中坝段.姚都镇地表破裂可能说明南坝以北的地震具有不同的活动特征.活动断裂的运动方式反映区域应力场有北西西向挤压特征.     

Scaling of Fracture and Faulting of Ice on Earth

The scaling properties of fracture and faulting of ice on Earth are reviewed.Numerous evidences for the scaling of fracture and faulting of ice are given,including self-affine fracture surfaces, fractal fracture networks at small(laboratory) and large (geophysical) scales, power law distributions of fracturelengths or of fragment sizes within fault gouges. These scaling laws are discussedin terms of the underlying mechanics. Scaling of the observables associated withfracture and faulting argues for the scale invariance of the fracture and faultingprocesses and indicates that small scales cannot be arbitrarily disconnected fromlarge scales. Consequently, quantitative links between scales cannot be performedthrough classical homogenization procedures. Scaling can also induce scale effectson different mechanical parameters such as fracture energy, strength or stiffness.Although scaling is ubiquitous for the fracture of ice on Earth, important exceptionsexist such as the nucleation of microcracks or the crevassing of glaciers. Theseexceptions are stressed and discussed.     

川南马边地区强震危险性分析

根据最近34a的区域台网地震资料,利用地震活动性参数b值的空间分布,结合历史强震与现今地震活动背景,分析了川南马边地区主要断裂带的现今活动习性,并初步判别出了潜在的强震危险区域。研究结果表明:1)马边地区的b值空间分布存在明显的空间差异,反映了该区域不同断裂带与断裂段应力积累水平的差异;2)马边-盐津断裂带上存在3个尺度不等的异常低b值区,它们可能是该断裂带上的相对高应力区(或凹凸体),其中位于马边北、沐川西部利店镇附近的凹凸体与位于该断裂带南端盐津附近的凹凸体可能是马边地区未来发生大地震的危险场所,而位于绥江南的小尺度凹凸体有可能是潜在强震的发生地点;3)存在于龙泉山断裂带西南段的凹凸体将是未来发生中强地震的场所;4)金口河-美姑断裂上位于汉源县皇木镇与峨眉山市龙池镇之间的凹凸体存在发生中强地震的可能性     

An asperity model to simulate rupture along heterogeneous fault surfaces

A model has been developed to simulate the statistical and mechanical nature of rupture on a heterogeneous strike-slip fault. The model is based on the progressive failure of circular asperities of varying sizes and strengths along a fault plane subjected to a constant far-field shear displacement rate. The basis of the model is a deformation and stress intensity factory solution for a single circular asperity under a unidirectional shear stress. The individual asperities are unified through the fault stiffness and the far-field stress and displacement. During fault deformation asperities can fail and reheal, resulting in changes in the local stresses in the asperities, stress drops, and changes in the stiffness of the fault. Depending on how the stress is redistributed following asperity failure and on the strenghts of the neighboring asperities an earthquake event can be the failure of one or more asperities. Following an earthquake event seismic source parameters such as the stress drop, energy change, and moment magnitude are calculated. Results from the model show a very realistic pattern of earthquake rupture, with reasonable source parameters, the proper magnitude-frequency behavior, and the development of characteristic earthquakes. Also the progression ofb-values in the model gives some insight into the phenomenon of self-organized criticality.     

Iterative deconvolution of complex body waves from great earthquakes—the Tokachi-Oki earthquake of 1968

A method of body-wave inversion is developed in an attempt to extract the information about asperities or barriers in a fault zone. A sequence of point sources, each being characterized with the seismic moment, the onset time and the location, are iteratively derived from observed records at multi-stations, where the two-dimensional extent of the source location is taken into account. A modification is made of the iterative method of Kikuchi and Kanamori on the formulation of inversion procedure to facilitate the computation.Using this method, we analyse long period P waves of the Tokachi-Oki earthquake of 1968 (M_w = 8.2) and obtain several significant subevents with time durations of ～ 10 s. Their spatio-temporal distribution shows that the rupture process consists of three characteristic stages: (A) a stage of introductory rupture, (B) a stage of main rupture and (C) a stage of aftershocks. The main rupture takes place in the form of clustering around a few sites of the fault plane. The largest subevent occurs in the northwestern corner. The stress drop associated with this event is estimated to be ～ 200 bars, one order of magnitude higher than the stress drop averaged over the entire fault plane. The sum of the seismic moments of the individual subevents amounts to 2.3 × 10²⁸ dyn. cm which approximately coincides with the one estimated from the analysis of long-period surface waves. This implies that the source of the Tokachi-Oki earthquake consists of several major subevents with time durations of ～ 10 s in addition to other minor subevents.     

Combination of Precise Leveling and InSAR Data to Constrain Source Parameters of the Mw = 6.5, 26 December 2003 Bam Earthquake

We used new precise leveling data acquired 40 days after the Bam earthquake in combination with radar interferometry observations from both ascending and descending orbits to investigate static deformation associated with the 2003 Bam earthquake. We invert this geodetic data set to gain insight into the fault geometry and slip distribution of the rupture. The best-fitting dislocation model is a steeply east-dipping right-lateral strike-slip fault that has a size of 11 by 8 km and strikes N2°W. We find that such smooth geometry fits available geodetic data better than previously proposed models for this earthquake. Our distributed slip model indicates a maximum strike slip of 3 m occurring about 3 to 5 km deep. The slip magnitude and depth of faulting taper to the north, where the fault approaches the Bam city. Inclusion of crustal layering increases the amount of maximum slip inferred at depth by about 4%.     

各向异性ATI介质剪切位错源地震矩张量

考虑震源区为各向异性ATI介质情形下,给出了剪切位错源地震矩张量解析表达式并模拟了震源区各向异性对双力偶分量(DC)、补偿线性偶极子分量(CLVD)和各向同性分量(ISO)的影响,结果表明,即使剪切位错源仍能产生非双力偶各向同性分量,其导致沿着ATI介质对称轴方向体积变化;当断层面位于ATI介质对称平面或者震源区为各向...     

Surface-rupturing history of the Bree fault scarp, Roer Valley graben: Evidence for six events since the late Pleistocene

Since 1996 paleoseismological investigations have been used to develop the surface- rupturing history of the Bree fault scarp, the morphologically best-defined segment of the southwestern border fault of the Roer Valley graben in northeastern Belgium. The first studies determined that the escarpment is associated with a surface fault, and they exposed evidence for three surface displacements since about 40 ka BP. The most recent eventprobably occurred between 1000 and 1350 yr cal BP. Geophysical and trenching studies at a new site near the southeastern end of the fault scarp reconfirmed the coincidence of the frontal escarpment with a shallow normal fault, which displaces the Middle Pleistocene `Main Terrace' of the Maas River, as well as overlying coversands of Saalian to late Weichselian age. Different amounts of displacement shown by the two youngest coversand units indicate two discrete faulting events, but primary evidence for the coseismic nature of these events is sparse. Radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dating constrainthe age of these events to the Holocene and between 14.0 ± 2.3 ka BP and 15.8 ± 2.9 ka BP, respectively. In addition, four older surface-rupturing events are inferred from the presence of four wedge-shaped units of reworked Main Terrace deposits that are interbedded with coversand units in the hanging wall of the trench and in shallow boreholes. These wedges are interpreted as colluvial wedges, produced by accelerated slope processes in response torejuvenation of the fault scarp, most probably in a periglacial environment. Luminescence dating indicates that five out of a total of six identified faulting events are younger than 136.6 ± 17.6 ka. The antepenultimate event was the largest faulting event, associated with a total fault displacement in excess of 1 m. Thus, the newly investigated trench site represents the longest and most complete record of surface rupturing recovered so far along the Bree fault scarp. This study also demonstrates the viability of the paleoseismological approach to identify past large earthquakes in areas of present-day moderate to low seismic activity.     

2018年阿拉斯加湾MW7.9地震震源复杂性

2018年1月23日,在美国阿拉斯加湾海域发生了一次M_W7.9地震.震源机制解表明这次地震以走滑为主,可能发生在近东西向或南北向的陡倾角断层上,早期余震并非线型展布.我们利用视震源时间函数分析确定了此次地震的总体破裂方向,并结合余震的空间展布特征构建了相互交叉的双断层模型,进而通过联合反演远场P波和SH波数据获得了此次地震的时空破裂过程.视震源时间函数分析表明总体破裂方向既非东西也非南北,而且反演结果表明,两个断层上都发生了错动,总体破裂时间~50 s,释放标量地震矩~8.11×10²⁰ Nm.震源时间函数表现出多事件特征,且两个断层破裂的时间过程也不相同.破裂首先在南北向断层的南端开始,很快触发了东西向断层,最后终止于南北向断层的北端.每个断层都具有相当的时空复杂性,位错分布很不均匀.东西向断层具有三个凹凸体,一个位于震源附近,其他两个位于断层两端.南北向断层有两个凹凸体,均位于断层北段,最大滑动量~5.0 m就出现在这里.发生最大位错的南北向断层延伸至阿拉斯加海沟,增加了触发阿拉斯加海沟其他断层发生破裂的可能性.     

Scale Effects in Simple Models for the Dynamics of Faults

Although the evidence for complexity is overwhelming, the dynamics of faulting is still poorly understood. Whilst it has long been known that discreteness in numerical earthquake models produces complexity, the mathematical structure and form of this complexity has never been fully established. Using a simple 1D nonlinear fault model we show how complexity can arise in discrete models through the presence of nonlinear, scale-dependent (or mesh-dependent) terms. We show that scale-dependencies may be a significant factor in the generation of slip complexity and pulse-like rupture over multiple earthquake cycles. We demonstrate that the introduction of length scales in discrete earthquake models implies that both strongly weakening friction and scale-dependent processes may be necessary in generating the pulse-like rupture mode and earthquake complexity over multiple earthquake cycles.     

Characterization of Stress Drops on Asperities Estimated from the Heterogeneous Kinematic Slip Model for Strong Motion Prediction for Inland Crustal Earthquakes in Japan

Dense strong motion observation networks provided us with valuable data for studying strong motion generation from large earthquakes. From kinematic waveform inversion of seismic data, the slip distribution on the fault surface of large earthquakes is known to be spatially heterogeneous. Because heterogeneities in the slip and stress drop distributions control the generation of near-source ground motion, it is important to characterize these heterogeneities for past earthquakes in constructing a source model for reliable prediction of strong ground motion. The stress changes during large earthquakes on the faults recently occurring in Japan are estimated from the detailed slip models obtained by the kinematic waveform inversion. The stress drops on and off asperities are summarized on the basis of the stress change distributions obtained here. In this paper, we define the asperity to be a rectangular area whose slip is 1.5 or more times larger than the average slip over the fault according to the previous study for inland crustal earthquakes. The average static stress drops on the asperities of the earthquakes studied here are in the range 6?C23?MPa, whereas those off the asperities are below 3?MPa. We compiled the stress drop on the asperities together with a data set from previous studies of other inland earthquakes in Japan and elsewhere. The static stress drop on the asperity depends on its depth, and we obtained an empirical relationship between the static stress drop and the asperity??s depth. Moreover, surface-breaking asperities seemed to have smaller stress drops than buried asperities. Simple ground motion simulations using the characterized asperity source models reveal that deep asperities generate larger ground motion than shallow asperities, because of the different stress drops of the asperities. These characteristics can be used for advanced source modeling in strong ground motion prediction for inland crustal earthquakes.