Ocean governance in a competitive world. The BRIC countries as emerging maritime powers—building new geopolitical scenarios

Owing to their style and economic impact, Brazil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC countries) are destined to become relevant actors in the new ocean governance. The following working hypothesis is sustained: the BRIC countries, due to the potential of their maritime territories, can be considered to be emerging maritime powers capable of displacing some of the historical maritime powers. This would also entail a shift of strategic maritime space towards the southern hemisphere. Other emerging maritime scenarios associated with the BRIC countries include the Russian Arctic, and the Indo-Pacific ocean belt, or “string of pearls”, as it is known. Factors such as competitiveness, maritime leadership and ocean governance are thus placed in a new economic and political context where they might be redefined and adapted to the circumstances of the BRIC block and other emerging countries, the majority of which are subject to demographic pressure and a high degree of poverty. The most relevant conclusions point to the emergence of a new type of neo-navalism, on the one hand—a BRIC version of traditional sea power and, on the other, a possible threat to the EU's Integrated Maritime Policy under pressure from strong competitiveness in a highly internationalised environment, forcing changes in its original approach with its distinct social profiles and commitment to latest generation rights.     

Compliance with international emission regulations: Reducing the air pollution from merchant vessels

In September 1997, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted an international convention protocol to reduce air pollution from ships, in order to achieve sustainable maritime development. This protocol has been approved by 15 member countries and will be enforced in May 2005. Pollutants emitted from ships, such as nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, sulfur oxides, etc. will be regulated by this convention through ship inspections and issuance of certificates. Ships belonging to maritime countries such as Taiwan, which sail around the world and berth in commercial ports, must obey this convention. This study has investigated possible strategies, which may be adopted by maritime countries to conform to this IMO convention in order to reduce the air pollution from ships. A sea-going ship must prepare EIAPP and IAPP certificates for inspection by port-state-control officials, when the ship is anchored at a maritime port. These port-state-control officials may also require the continuous detection and sampling of a ship's emissions, while it is berthed at the port. Legislative support is necessary for successful implementation of these safeguards. It is suggested, therefore, that the administration of both navigational and environmental protection, in maritime countries, cooperate in the revision of relevant federal laws, to implement the provisions of the MARPOL 73/78/97 convention; in this way, the air pollution from ships can be effectively controlled. Installation of advanced detection equipment can effectively detect any ships’ violations of air pollution regulations. The Harbor Affairs’ Bureau should also establish a database of air pollution inspections for ships berthed within their harbor, requiring that ships’ equipment comply with the requirements of the MARPOL convention, for the reduction of air pollution.     

Maritime health of Chinese seafarers

Seafarers make a critical contribution to civil society, but seafarers’ health has received comparatively little attention in the maritime world. China has the largest population of seafarers, and Chinese seafarers are working on board merchant ships flying different flags. The Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 entered into force in China in November 2016, and it has already generated significant impact in terms of policy, legislation and maritime practice. However, while seafarers’ treatment has been improved significantly in many countries, in particular in developed countries, Chinese seafarers are still facing some challenges relating to health issues, such as long working hours, insufficient nutrition, lack of recreation and poor mental health. Based on existing knowledge and scholarship available in the public domain, together with primary data collected in several phases of fieldwork, this paper critically examines a number of major issues relating to maritime health of Chinese seafarers.     

发达国家海上搜救体系对比研究及对我国的启示

提升海上应急搜救能力对保障人民生命安全、维护国家海洋权益、彰显大国责任和担当具有积极作用和深远意义。发达国家海上搜救体系的先进性主要体现在搜救力量专业化、应急响应快捷化、组织协调高效化、搜救业务程序化等方面。文中对美国、英国、澳大利亚、日本4个国家的海上搜救组织构成、搜救力量水平、搜救工作模式等进行了分析,与我国海上搜救体系和机制进行了对比,并从优化搜救组织模式、完善搜救运行机制、健全搜救力量等方面给出了发展我国海上搜救体系的建议。     

The maritime radio spectrum future

Future satisfaction of the electromagnetic spectrum needs of the maritime mobile service is dependent on the translation of those needs to frequency allocations. In September 1979, over 100 countries will consider all of the spectrum, and make changes to meet perceived needs of radio services, including maritime needs up to the year 2000. This conference, the World Administrative Radio Conference 1979, will have a significant impact on future maritime radio operations. Issues, procedures, competing requirements, are explored to enable a better understanding of the regulatory process for frequency allocations.     

Manifestation of maritime piracy as an additional challenge for global conservation

Hostile acts against ships and mariners remain a global social and political phenomenon which usually reflects a high degree of socioeconomic vulnerability. The identification of the causes and driving factors behind the deteriorating maritime security has received considerable attention. However, their potential impact upon biodiversity conservation initiatives remains poorly evaluated. In the present study the spatial overlap between biodiversity hotspots and hotspots of hostile maritime acts are explored. The majority of such hostile acts occur in economically vulnerable countries, with the operation of their Marine Protected Areas largely depending on the revenue generated by visitors. Given that hostile maritime acts could cause financial losses and increase social and political instability, they could significantly alter conservation efficiency. Thus, it is critical to consider the way of incorporating maritime security risks into conservation agendas.     

Geodetic Datum of Indonesian Maritime Boundaries: Status and Problems

Indonesia has maritime boundaries with 10 countries namely: Australia, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Palau, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and India. Many treaties have been ratified concerning these boundaries. Unfortunately, many coordinates of boundary points mentioned in the treaties are not clear in relation to their geodetic datum. The uncertainty in geodetic datum of boundary points introduces complications and problems in spatial management of Indonesia's maritime boundaries, since it can displace the boundary lines from their assumed true location. This study investigates the possible original geodetic datums for the maritime boundaries between Indonesia and neighboring countries, in the case they are not explicitly stated in the treaties. The displacements of boundaries in WGS84 datum are generally in the order of a few hundred meters, i.e., about 200 to 400 m, depending on the assumed original geodetic datum being considered. These boundary displacements are spatially advantageous for Indonesia in some cases and also disadvantageous in others. The study will sum up with some conclusions and recommendations.     

Organizations: INMARSAT: improving maritime communications

Improving maritime communications is the raison d'être of INMARSAT, of which 40 countries are now members. INMARSAT operates the world's only commercial satellite system devoted to international mobile communications. This article describes the system and the services which can be provided through it, and covers the policy issues of interest to INMARSAT. It concludes by considering the future of maritime mobile communications via satellite.     

Geodetic Datum of Indonesian Maritime Boundaries: Status and Problems

Indonesia has maritime boundaries with 10 countries namely: Australia, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Palau, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and India. Many treaties have been ratified concerning these boundaries. Unfortunately, many coordinates of boundary points mentioned in the treaties are not clear in relation to their geodetic datum. The uncertainty in geodetic datum of boundary points introduces complications and problems in spatial management of Indonesia's maritime boundaries, since it can displace the boundary lines from their assumed true location. This study investigates the possible original geodetic datums for the maritime boundaries between Indonesia and neighboring countries, in the case they are not explicitly stated in the treaties. The displacements of boundaries in WGS84 datum are generally in the order of a few hundred meters, i.e., about 200 to 400 m, depending on the assumed original geodetic datum being considered. These boundary displacements are spatially advantageous for Indonesia in some cases and also disadvantageous in others. The study will sum up with some conclusions and recommendations.     

The Spanish approach to marine spatial planning. Marine Strategy Framework Directive vs. EU Integrated Maritime Policy

The coming into effect of the Directive 2008/56/EC (Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)) will induce European Union member States to create mechanisms for managing maritime space in order to comply with the goals set out in this binding legislation. This leads one to think that marine spatial planning in various countries in the EU will be directed at complying with the Directive's environmental goals, as is the case in Spain, rather than undertaking proactive planning for developing the maritime sectors. To put the case of Spain into perspective, a review is conducted of the initiatives taken, especially in Europe and the European Union, exploring the correlations between the main focuses of the maritime sectors and the planning systems. The analysis of the Spanish initiative demonstrates how the maritime economy model and geopolitical factors explain the planning options for the marine environment. In other respects, with the coming into effect of the MSFD, a dual institutional course for marine spatial planning seems to be opening up in the EU: Integrated Maritime Policy vs. the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.     

物联网技术发展综述及海洋信息化对策研究

物联网是在互联网的基础上,利用信息技术实现物体自动识别和信息共享的网络系统。介绍了物联网发展的背景、体系结构及物联网的主要关键技术,分析了物联网的主要特征和内涵;在此基础上,介绍了有关国家物联网的发展战略和现状,并结合我国海洋领域的具体情况,提出了物联网技术影响下,我国海洋信息化发展的应对策略和技术路径。     

中国和葡萄牙海洋科技合作实践

中葡海洋合作是构建人类命运共同体和海洋共同体的重要实践。为了更好地推动中葡两国的合作,文章以中葡双方海洋科技合作为视角,分析了两国间开展合作的优势及合作现状,并提出了建立中葡海洋科技交流机制性平台、推动建立中葡联合海洋研究中心、积极推进中葡海洋科技项目务实合作等建议,期望对今后中葡海洋领域深入合作提供参考。     

Port privatization in Panama

In previous papers we have looked at open registries, the Panama maritime sector and Panama Canal operations and management. No maritime study of Panama is complete, however, without a detailed look at the Panama Canal's main port system, which has enjoyed remarkable growth since the privatization of the terminal ports of Cristóbal and Balboa in 1995. This paper looks at the evolution and development of the Canal's port system; its stewardship, initially by the American authorities governing the Canal and, post-transition, by the Panamanians, and includes a study of the driving forces that led to privatization. We will conclude by looking at the results of the successful reform of the system, currently considered a primary model for other Latin American countries.     

ASEAN navies: new missions and old problems

For the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) — Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand — the classical naval missions, protecting the country from seaborne attack and keeping vital sea lanes open, are less important than functions related to new concepts in the law of the sea, coupled with problems which have plagued South-east Asians for hundreds of years. Each of the ASEAN countries now is entitled to claim vastly extended exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and continental shelves, and all but Singapore have been able to extend their maritime territories greatly. However, the old problems of combating piracy, smuggling and illegal barter trade still exist. To these must be added the new patrol functions necessary to protect offshore resources and enforce extended maritime jurisdictional claims.     

Maritime clusters: What can be learnt from the South West of England

The South West of England is a very extensive region, with constraints in terms of its transport network. It is imperative if the region is to optimise its economic development for transport services to fully utilise all transport modes, not least, short sea shipping. To achieve this objective will require, inter alia, investment in the region’s port infrastructure. The result of this study suggests that each South West port provides a hub to develop a small maritime cluster which provides some sort of platform for marine and maritime related activities or businesses to co-ordinate and communicate. In addition, the region is well placed geographically in relation to a number of other European Union countries, with which to develop seaborne trade links. If this can be supported both by the development of coastal shipping links between regional ports and the incremental capability of rail and road transport within the region, then substantial increased economic activity for the region could result. Moreover, it would be beneficial if the region’s ports could act as a maritime cluster, optimising the contribution each port can make. This in no way would preclude healthy competition between the ports.     

Aggregate performance in managing marine ecosystems of 53 maritime countries

Fourteen indicators of marine living resource management performance by country, reflecting both their intention to sustainably use the resource within their Exclusive Economic Zones and the effectiveness of their policies, were developed and the performances of 53 maritime countries were assessed. Four rankings of the countries, which jointly account for over 95 percent of the world's marine fisheries landings, are presented here as aggregated scores of the fourteen indicators, using different schemes for weighting the indicators, each reflective of the management preferences identified by the Global Environment Outlook 4 (GEO4) future development scenarios: Market First; Policy First; Security First; and Sustainability First. The resulting rankings differed substantially between the weighting schemes for the top performing countries but less so for the countries performing poorly.     

The new institutional arrangements for fisheries management in Beibu Gulf

China and Vietnam have recently signed two bilateral agreements to deal with maritime issues in Beibu Gulf. One is the maritime boundary delimitation agreement, and the other the fisheries agreement. The two parties have also formulated a supplementary protocol to the latter agreement. All of them have entered into force on 30 June 2004. This article introduces the new arrangements for fisheries management initiated by the two countries, focusing especially on the Joint Fishery Committee established by the two parties, the contracting waters covered by the fisheries agreement, and the conservation and management measures for the Gulf's fisheries. The challenges likely confronted by China after this institutional change takes place are analyzed. A brief comparison is drawn among the three effectual fisheries agreements signed by China, respectively, with Japan, South Korea and Vietnam. Finally, as for the future of fisheries management in the Gulf some recommendations are made.     

What do we know about the labour market for seafarers?: A view from the UK

This paper considers the evidence that exists on the global demand and supply of seafarers, and their age profiles. New information on the age profiles of deck and engine officers is presented, drawn from records held by the UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency. Detailed age profiles for certain countries are constructed and compared with that of the UK, as well as with estimates published elsewhere. Using the data derived from the MCA, it is shown that there is a significant positive correlation between the age profiles of seafarer supplying countries and their level of economic development, as measured by GDP per capita. This evidence is consistent with the view that the future supply of seafaring officers will increasingly be oriented towards countries at lower levels of development, as the existing pool of highly qualified officers from traditional maritime countries continues to diminish.     

陆海分界和河海分界探讨

针对我国相关部门在实施<海域使用管理法>时,存在对管辖权认识不一致的情况,对焦点所在的海岸线确定、滩涂归属问题以及河海划界进行讨论.通过对国外沿海各国确定的海岸线现状的考察以及对国内涉海管理工作实践经验的分析,认为海岸线应为平均大潮高潮线.对于滩涂归属问题,由于国内现有法律对潮间带滩涂性质的确定存在矛盾,从两方面对潮间带滩涂性质进行分析.从滩涂本身特点来说,潮间带滩涂受海洋动力影响较大且与海洋联系密切,将其从海域管理工作中割裂出来,易造成海洋生态系统的严重损害.而从滩涂归属权国际实践来看,以平均高潮线为海岸线的国家大多将潮间带滩涂归属于海域.因此认为高潮线以下滩涂应属海域,并提出3点建议:(1) 基于国内滩涂使用与支配事实的历史成因,建议监督和管理功能分由两个部门负责,海洋部门起监督作用,仍由原来沿海各省主管滩涂开发的部门开发滩涂,这样也有利于滩涂开发管理的持续性和滩涂资源的保护;(2) 对于海域使用许可权,建议采用多项许可证制度,既避免主管部门滥用行政权力,损害其他部门的利益,同时也使开发利用项目得到周密的审查,避免其对海洋生态、海洋环境产生不利影响;(3) 在审批权限方面,考虑各省滩涂自然条件不一、经济发展重点不一的情况并借鉴国际实践,建议适当扩大地方政府和地方海洋管理部门对海域管理的权限.河海分界是海岸线确定的难点.对于河海分界问题,认为河海划界是社会行为,是对在河海交汇区域里的管理行为及其职责、义务的分类和界定,应满足遵守自然客观规律、有利于社会稳定团结和资源可持续发展以及综合考虑多方面因素这3项原则.从3方面讨论了河口的归属问题.并建议主要江河的河海界线以河口口门和口外海滨段的内端为界,即河口的近口段和河口段应属河,河口的口外海滨段属海.在一些小的入海河流可以明显的标志物(如挡潮闸、桥等)作为河海分界线.     

Maritime security in Indonesia: Towards a comprehensive agenda?

Against the backdrop of Indonesian President Widodo's expressed intention to turn his country in to a maritime nation again, this article examines the way in which the Indonesian state understands and utilises the concept of maritime security. The article achieves this aim by discussing the results of a Training Needs Analysis of key Indonesian state maritime security actors, conducted as part of the first phase of a multi-stakeholder project examining how Indonesia's maritime security capacity can be improved.The article illustrates how key maritime actors within the Indonesian state demonstrate a diverse understanding of what maritime security is, and argues that there is a demonstrable willingness on their part to look beyond a narrow conceptualisation of security in the maritime domain, which is solely focused on military threats and the defence of the state, towards something more comprehensive. Here the Indonesian approach to maritime security mirrors in practice conceptual trends encapsulated in the emergence of maritime security studies. The article concludes that there is the potential for a more comprehensive maritime security agenda to take hold in Indonesia but that this will require continued strategic and policy focus on the maritime domain within the country, alongside an emphasis on partnership building both within the state and between the state and non-state actors.Consistent dialogue around how maritime security is conceptualised would be helpful in supporting these two conditions the article posits, elaborating the value of the human security lens for those interested in a more comprehensive approach to maritime security.