Coastal livelihood vulnerability to marine resource degradation: A review of the Indonesian national coastal and marine policy framework

In rapidly developing countries, where large sections of the population are highly dependent on marine resources, coastal livelihoods are vulnerable to sudden shocks and long-term change. National policy can attempt to mitigate this vulnerability within a multi-level framework by addressing the three aspects of vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity) through well-documented interventions. This article reviews the Indonesian policy framework for coastal and marine policy interventions that either directly or indirectly address different dimensions of coastal livelihood vulnerability. The findings show that the policy environment for addressing coastal livelihood vulnerability is heavily based on developing adaptive capacity and to a certain extent sensitivity without adequately addressing exposure, the initial cause of vulnerability. In addition, the complexities and inconsistencies within the Indonesian governmental structures, as well as more general issues of funding gaps and poor coordination, mean that policies created at national level rarely filter down to provide the intended benefits to coastal communities. It is recommended that practitioners and policymakers engage in a more cohesive and balanced approach to addressing livelihood vulnerability in coastal management by focusing more on the causes of the disease, exposure, rather than healing just the symptoms.     

A process framework for coastal zone management in Tanzania

A process framework is described to address socio-economic issues related to coastal zone management, specifically as it applies to the mitigation of impacts due to the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). Analysis of the existing social environment in Tanzania, including social capital, vulnerable groups and livelihood components, was undertaken to allow for the identification of critical issues and challenges. The developed process framework is a guidance document for decision-makers to incorporate the interests and needs of affected stakeholders. This safeguard commits to a consultative process with clear channels of communication, established grievance procedures, and monitoring and evaluation activities for affected communities.     

A dual-level framework for evaluating integrated coastal management beyond labels

Despite many efforts in the past 10 years, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) evaluation remains much of a challenge. Building on theoretical resources provided by three bodies of work (strategic analysis of environmental management, integrated coastal management and evaluation of public policies), this paper first underlines some of the most critical weaknesses and “black boxes” in current ICM evaluation. It explains why a single purpose program evaluation model is unsatisfactory, and how it hinders evaluation in practice. It then suggests ways to re-think ICM evaluation, proposing a dual-level framework that combines evaluation of ICM initiatives with evaluation of coastal management systems.     

A critical review of the CoastView project: Recent and future developments in coastal management video systems

This contribution provides a critical review of the CoastView project; a research program designed to develop and quantify video-derived Coastal State Indicators (CSIs) which simplify various aspects of coastal zone management including, coastal protection, navigation and recreation. This paper aims to provide a guide to future applied research projects of this kind. The research program implemented a ‘frame of reference’ methodology in order to effectively match research outcomes to the needs of end users and to facilitate communication within a consortium comprising both scientists and end users of the technology. Data derived from coastal video systems played a crucial role in defining CSIs which form a central component of the ‘frame of reference’ process. In general coastal video systems were demonstrated to be a very effective coastal management tool in all of the areas under investigation, uniquely providing data with excellent spatial and temporal resolution and coverage. Additionally, the ‘frame of reference’ ensured the appropriate match of science to the needs of the end user. However, even given these significant advances, the transfer of useful methodologies to applied tools is not guaranteed. The importance of providing simple, robust tools for delivering CSIs simply and efficiently to the coastal manager at the appropriate time-scale was recognised; ideally this should be completed within the timeframe of the research program. The acceptance of new methodologies is greatly enhanced by demonstrating them alongside more established techniques and other data sources, clearly showing the advantages, reliability and accuracy of the new approach.     

厦门海岸带资源与管理战略

本文分析了厦门海岸带资源现状和管理中存在的问题。厦门海岸带管理素来以行为的基础,实施行业管理。这种管理机制已经难以解决海岸带过度开发、环境恶化、资源开发利用与保护之间的矛盾等日益严重的问题。新型的海岸带资源管理是一种较为全面的管理方法,致力于建立综合管理体制,其中考虑到各行业部门对海岸带及其资源可能造成影响的各种活动,同时综合考虑社会、经济、环境和生态等问题,从而平衡和优化经济发展、公共利用和环境     

Ecosystem and legal framework for coastal management in Central Chile

At ecosystem level, sandy beaches, dune fields, cliffs, and marine terraces are the main physiographic units which characterize the coastal fringe of central Chile. Natural hazards – storm surges, tsunamis, and heavy rains – may induce risks of flooding, erosion, mudflow, and mass movement for human settlements. Land use, in particular related to the recent tourist boom, as well as induced environmental degradation are reviewed. The legal framework for seaside human occupation is critically examined. Recommendations for a better development are proposed only.     

A hierarchical framework to aid biodiversity assessment for coastal zone management and marine protected area selection

The need to rapidly and accurately identify areas for protection and conservation in the marine environment has been highlighted as of critical importance. Managers require timely and cost-effective techniques to obtain biodiversity information at appropriate scales and resolutions aligned with management objectives and stakeholders requirements. In this paper, a two-stage, multi-level data collection framework is presented that will aid managers to focus on what marine biodiversity collection techniques will meet their individual jurisdictional needs.The framework begins with an integrated planning process (objective setting, stakeholder identification, and sensitivity and gap analyses), that leads to a hierarchical approach for selecting biodiversity assessment techniques that will gather required marine biodiversity data. Complexity of scale and resolution increases as one progress's through the hierarchical levels of Stage II. The utility of using a hierarchical framework is that it surmounts the problem that no single technique can quantify all biological attributes necessary for management outcomes. Also, the user enters the framework at a hierarchical level that meets their requirements thus removing the collection of redundant data. Ultimately, the rapid assessment framework is based on the efficient and sufficient assessment of marine biodiversity.     

Sovereign rights over Indonesian natural resources : An archipelagic concept of rational and sustainable resource management

This article examines the role of the concept of sovereignty over national resources in the management of resources. Resource management as opposed to resource exploitation is more desirable both for the protection of the environment and for the sustainable development of resources. It is argued that the national right over resources is an essential element in rational resources management which in turn is indispensable to carrying out a policy of sustainable development. The article first describes the Southeast Asian seas environment. Second, the article examines the regime of archipelagic waters according to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 and its significance for the right of the management of natural resources in the Indonesian marine space. Third, utilization of living resources in the national marine space is reviewed. Fourth, the article deals with the mechanism for a rational management of non-living resources: the Kontrak Karya and production sharing systems for hard minerals and oil and gas respectively.     

Integrated coastal zone management towards Indonesia global ocean observing system (INA-GOOS): Review and recommendation

Indonesia as an archipelagos country consisting of more than 17,508 islands has a challenging problem in terms of island management and the provisional ocean services to the coastal community. The population growth (especially in coastal areas) followed by declining natural resources caused by overfishing and overexploitation is one of the biggest concerns both for the central and the local governments in Indonesia. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the attempted solutions to overcome these difficulties, however, it is known to be unsatisfactory even after several programs under ICZM have been developed and implemented. Therefore, further facilitation of ICZM programs is necessary in order to benefit to Indonesian governmental management of their islands, coastal areas and oceans. In doing so, ICZM will also make a significant contribution towards the implementation of the Indonesia Global Ocean Observing System (INA-GOOS). This paper aims to review ICZM activities in Indonesia to obtain a better understanding of, and the need for ICZM implementations in support of their policy, sustainability and decision-making process in the direction of INA-GOOS. It is expected that the ICZM implementations will have a high impact on INA-GOOS programs.     

The institutional framework for regional cooperation in ocean and coastal management in the South Pacific

Constrained by physical and economic factors, the States and Territories in the central and southwestern Pacific region (the Pacific Island States and Territories) have utilized regional cooperation in addressing many of the coastal and marine resources development issues facing the region. Regional cooperation in dealing with coastal and marine issues has been facilitated largely through the establishment of a number of regional organizations. This article discusses the institutional frameworks for regional cooperation in coastal and marine resources and environmental management by the Pacific Island States and Territories. The article also highlights efforts being made to achieve better harmonization of the roles and responsibilities of the various organizations.     

Linking marine protected areas to integrated coastal and ocean management: A review of theory and practice

If managed in isolation, coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) are vulnerable to natural resource development and exploitation occurring outside these areas—in particular, overfishing, alteration and destruction of habitats, and water pollution. Thus, protection of coastal and marine areas—of species, habitats, landscapes, and seascapes—should be integrated into spatial development strategies for larger areas, under the umbrella of integrated coastal and ocean management (ICM). This is typically easier said than done, since the actors involved in MPA networks and in ICM programs are often different, reflecting different cultures, networks of relationships, ministries, and goals and motivations.This article reviews the ecological, social and economic linkages between MPAs and the governance of broader ocean and coastal areas; sets forth nine guiding principles for managing MPAs within an ICM context; reviews work conducted under the Convention on Biological Diversity to operationalize the linkages between ICM and MPAs; and develops strategic guidance for addressing these linkages. The article ends with a call to bring together the diverse communities involved in marine protected areas, coastal and ocean management, and watershed management to collaborate in national-level ocean and coastal planning, including in the designation of networks of marine protected areas.     

面向海域管理的海洋资源资产负债表编制框架研究

编制海洋资源资产负债表是海洋生态文明建设的重要举措,然而目前对海洋资源资产负债表的研究相对薄弱,存在关键概念缺乏科学定义、核算方法可行性不足、报表体系设计不完善等问题。本文基于"生态管海、生态用海"的理念,针对现有问题探讨了海洋资源资产负债表编制框架:首先,根据自然资源资产负债表编制的目的和要求,界定了海洋资源资产负债表编制过程中的关键概念,并基于此,进一步考虑海洋资源属性、开发利用特点和当前海域管理重点任务确定了海洋资源资产的核算范围,包括海洋生物资源资产、海洋空间资源资产与海洋矿产资源资产;其次,针对不同海洋资源的特性,提出了具有较高可行性的海洋资源资产实物量和价值量核算方法;再次,根据不同海洋资源的价值特点,确认了资源过度耗减、环境破坏与生态损害三种负债形式并提出了相应的核算方法;最后,基于以上研究,形成了较为完善的海洋资源资产负债表报表体系,以期为海洋资源精细化管理和科学配置提供技术支撑。     

Heavy metals behavior in coastal sediments of southern California: a critical review and synthesis

The present paper reviews and discusses the studies on heavy metals behavior in coastal sediments of southern California which have been published since 1970.The available data allow for the estimation of pollution-free ‘base-line’ concentrations of some heavy metals in southern California sediments (Ag, 0.4 ppm; Cd, 0.4 ppm; Cr, 25 ppm; Cu, 9 ppm; Ni, 15 ppm; Pb, 10 ppm; and Zn, 44 ppm) which may be used as references for monitoring future metal pollution.The transport of most, if not all, heavy metals through the near-shore and shelf environments is controlled by their association with particles, a significant fraction of which is sewage-derived and rich in organic carbon. Changes in the relative abundances of the heavy metals are brought about mainly by settling differentiation of their host particles, and much less so by diagenetic solubilization. The bulk of the heavy metals are transported, within fine-grained particles, out from the shelf into deep ocean regions.Simple linear mixing of polluted outfall materials with clean natural sediments cannot explain the distribution of heavy metals in near-shore and basinal sediments in southern California, unless significant protective effects of organic coatings (near outfalls) and of grain-size distributions are taken into account. Heavy metal pollution from oil seepages are significant for only a very limited number of metals (Ni, Ba, etc.) and only on a local scale.The urgent need for standardization of heavy metal leaching techniques is demonstrated and emphasized.     

Integrated coastal resources management and community participation in a small island setting

The concept of integrated coastal zone management must be rethought to adapt it to the geography and social conditions of small islands. Because of their size, all small islands are in the coastal zone. Defining the whole of the island and its coastal waters as the management area may weaken a program's effectiveness. An alternative may be to adapt special area management planning to the socio-spatial organization found on small islands. Social conditions on islands, where people live in relatively small cohesive communities, makes resource user participation in planning and management particularly germane. This paper outlines an argument for small islands to use participation as a central strategy of coastal management based on experience with natural resource management efforts on the island of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia.     

The cooperative framework for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands: Effectiveness,constraints and future direction

The framework for management of the ocean and coasts of the Pacific Islands region has been evolving since the early 1970s when Pacific Island countries played a significant role in the negotiations leading to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Commencing with a summary of the provisions of relevant international instruments, this paper presents a broad overview of regional arrangements for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands region. It considers the work of the various regional intergovernmental organizations with active programmes in ocean research and governance and the consultative arrangements that support coordination and collaboration. Consultative arrangements involving other stakeholders, such as local, regional and international nongovernmental organizations are summarised. To improve environmental governance and address increasing environmental threats, particularly in relation to coastal area management, consultative arrangements need strengthening. This applies equally to national and regional level consultation. The institutional and policy framework for the management and conservation of oceanic fish stocks that Pacific Island countries have been refining over a period of 25 years is suggested as providing useful lessons for strengthening coastal management processes and strategies in the region.     

Spatial fisheries management: A framework for multi-objective qualitative assessment

In many circumstances, quantitative assessment of fisheries management options is either impossible due to data deficiencies or impractical given the size of the fishery. Quantitative analysis of spatial management options in particular is complicated, as information on spatial fleet and stock dynamics is often unavailable and spatial models are difficult to construct. In this paper, a qualitative framework is presented that aids in the analysis of alternative spatial management options in coastal fisheries. The framework combines expert opinion and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to determine which options perform best taking into account the multiple objectives inherent in fisheries management.     

A general framework for indicator design and use with application to the assessment of coastal water quality and marine protected area management

Environmental management decisions based upon indicators are the end point of a process involving stakeholders and scientists. These steps should be explicit and follow a chronology. This paper presents a general framework for the design and use of management-oriented indicators, integrating management questions and performance criteria. We first examined the desirable characteristics of indicators aimed at providing decision-support for marine environmental management. Ideally, one should select the indicator that guarantees a safe and unambiguous decision leading to the appropriate measures in terms of regulation, remediation or control. In the present study, indicators are assessed according to two criteria: relevance and effectiveness. Relevance encompasses sensitivity and the existence of quantitative reference values, thereby allowing the selection of potential indicators. Effectiveness is the ability of the indicator to reach its predefined targets based on optimal (or at least improved) data collection protocols. The framework is illustrated by applying it to the European Water Framework Directive and to the Marine Protected Area management contexts.     

近海环境资源价值评估探讨

中国海岸线漫长,海洋资源丰富。近20年来,沿海地区经济的腾飞令人瞩目,但与此同时也付出了环境污染和资源破坏的代价。     

A new direction in coastal management

This paper argues for a stronger integration of marine sciences and coastal management studies that generates better formulated marine policies and viable policy implementation strategies. Integration of natural and social sciences in environmental management has surfaced as a key issue recently in the fields of sustainability science, ecosystem-based management, and social–ecological resilience. This paper promotes such trend in marine studies, and examines the rationale, progress, and examples of the integration.     

England's evolving marine and coastal governance framework

This paper reviews the principal marine and coastal policy changes in England since 1999. The key changes identified are the establishment of a strategic national marine and coastal policy direction, new marine legislation and institutions, the emergence of a marine planning framework, the consolidation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management approaches to coastal governance, the establishment of a Marine Protected Area network, and the decline of coastal partnerships. The European Union, UK National Government, and devolved administrations are identified as key influences on the governance evolution and their relative contributions are discussed. It is concluded that the English marine and coastal governance context has evolved significantly since 1999 and that the new framework, if implemented successfully, represents a genuine step towards an integrated governance framework for England's coasts and seas.