A regional collaborative approach in transboundary pollution management in the guinea current region of western Africa

The Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem extending from Guinea Bissau to Angola and covering sixteen countries in West and Central Africa and characterized by distinctive bathymetry, hydrography, chemistry, and trophodynamics with the Guinea Current as the unifying feature has remained a sources of global interest. With openness to the Atlantic Ocean and watercourses with access to the sea such as the Congo and Niger Rivers, the GCLME embodies some of the major coastal upwelling sub-ecosystems of the world and is an important center of marine biodiversity and marine food production ranked among the most productive coastal and offshore waters in the world. However, pollution from domestic and industry sources, over-exploitation of fisheries and poorly planned and managed coastal developments and near-shore activities are resulting in a rapid degradation of vulnerable coastal and offshore habitats and shared living marine resources of the GCLME putting the economies and health of the populace at risk. The deterioration in water quality (chronic and catastrophic) from land and sea-based activities (especially industrial, agricultural, urban and domestic sewage run-off and mining activities including the oil and gas sector), eutrophication and harmful algal blooms have been identified as a major transboundary environmental problem by the countries in the adopted Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA). Arising from the results of the various environmental and socio-economic studies and assessments conducted over the years as documented in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA), the countries resolved to adopt a holistic, multi-sectoral and regional approach embodied in the large marine ecosystem concept for transboundary pollution management in the region. The agreed management actions to be undertaken jointly by the sixteen countries are encapsulated in the adopted Strategic Action Programme to be implemented by the Interim Guinea Current Commission (and later the Guinea Current Commission), established by the countries as an intergovernmental consultation and coordination body, with the technical assistance and co-funding of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).     

UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme: approach,experience and future plans

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, UN Conference, 1972) outlined a ‘masterplan’ linking environmental assessment, environmental management and supporting measures as basic and inseparable elements of environmental actions plans. It also indicated the advantages of a regional approach in contributing to the solution of global problems. The Regional Seas Programme of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) was subsequently initiated in 1974 (UN General Assembly, 1972). Development of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme demonstrated that the basic concepts formulated at Stockholm can effectively foster regional cooperation among interested States, and may benefit from the support of the United Nations system as a whole.The present Regional Seas Programme includes fourteen regions, comprising over 140 coastal States. It was conceived as an action-oriented programme encompassing a comprehensive, trans-sectoral approach to marine and coastal areas and to environmental problems, considering not only the consequences, but also the causes of environmental degradation. Each Regional Seas Programme is based on the needs of the region concerned. The Regional Seas Programmes promote the parallel development of regional legal agreements, and of action-oriented programme activities, as embodied in the action plans. The overall strategy to be followed, as defined by UNEP’s Governing Council (UNEP, 1974) is:

• 1. Promotion of international and regional conventions, guidelines and actions for the control of marine pollution and the protection and management of aquatic resources.
• 2. Assessment of the state of marine pollution, pollution sources and trends, and of the impact of pollution on human health, marine ecosystems and amenities.
• 3. Coordination of efforts with regard to environmental aspects of the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.
• 4. Support for education and training efforts to facilitate the full participation of developing countries in the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.

Because the goal of each Regional Seas Programme is to benefit the States of that region, governments are involved from the very beginning in the formulation of the action plan. After acceptance, the implementation of the programme is carried out, under the overall authority of the governments concerned, by national institutions nominated by their governments. Although the Regional Seas Programme is implemented primarily by government-nominated institutions, specialized United Nations bodies, as well as the relevant international and regional organizations, contribute to its formulation, and also provide assistance to these national institutions. UNEP acts as an overall coordinator for the development and implementation of regional action plans. In some cases, this role is limited to the initial phase of the activities.     

The cooperative framework for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands: Effectiveness,constraints and future direction

The framework for management of the ocean and coasts of the Pacific Islands region has been evolving since the early 1970s when Pacific Island countries played a significant role in the negotiations leading to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Commencing with a summary of the provisions of relevant international instruments, this paper presents a broad overview of regional arrangements for ocean and coastal management in the Pacific Islands region. It considers the work of the various regional intergovernmental organizations with active programmes in ocean research and governance and the consultative arrangements that support coordination and collaboration. Consultative arrangements involving other stakeholders, such as local, regional and international nongovernmental organizations are summarised. To improve environmental governance and address increasing environmental threats, particularly in relation to coastal area management, consultative arrangements need strengthening. This applies equally to national and regional level consultation. The institutional and policy framework for the management and conservation of oceanic fish stocks that Pacific Island countries have been refining over a period of 25 years is suggested as providing useful lessons for strengthening coastal management processes and strategies in the region.     

Coastal management in the Persian Gulf region within the framework of the ROPME programme of action

Persian Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea located in the Middle East and is connected to oceans through the narrow 55-km Strait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf holds an estimated 57–66% of the world's known reserves of oil. The occurrence of three major battles in the Gulf region during the past three decades has created an atmosphere of commotion and uncertainty. Because of its marine geology, geographical location, and geopolitical sensitivity, coastal management in the Gulf region cannot be considered independently of its vast oil and natural gas reserves and environmentally related matters. The Regional Organization for Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) forum was established in Kuwait in 1979 and quickly ratified by seven new member states (Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates). Rapid growth of ROPME and shared coastal and marine environmental issues among littoral States have resulted in numerous successful plans laying the basis for future coastal management and development in the Persian Gulf region.Different plans were investigated to reach sustainable coastal management and environmental pollution prevention programmes in the Persian Gulf region and it was concluded that such plans could only be implemented when littoral states prioritize the management schemes in the Persian Gulf region and incorporate them into their own national legislation.Similar to many Regional Sea Programmes, ROPME has faced many drawbacks since its inception. Military conflicts, poor enforcement of protocols, lack of adequate coordination, disharmony among littoral states and lack of sufficient funding have put many coastal management programmes on hold.Demilitarization, enforcement of ROPME resolutions, and implementation of long-term economical growth planning are all part of an integrated coastal management programme that can bring about significant changes in the Persian Gulf area. Despite all existing differences and difficulties, many important tasks have been accomplished in the past two decades. Coastal management issues have been analyzed and well documented by ROPME. With the existing situation in the Gulf region, ROPME can effectively coordinate and implement the following tasks: monitor water quality and coastal habitat, develop and implement a comprehensive pollution prevention scheme, educate the public in terms of coastal preservation, train technical staff, put in place an effective pollution prevention and waste management programme, and establish the basis for an integrated regional coastal zone management plan.     

Terms of reference towards an integrated management policy in the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean

The ecological and socioeconomic importance of the Mexican coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean is analyzed and its main problems of pollution and environmental impact are described. Also, the legal, institutional, and technical framework that is applied to the coastal management of the region is analyzed. Finally, the definition and implementation of a Program of Integrated Management for the Coastal Zone of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, a Law for the Coastal Zone of the country, and adjustments to the main instruments of national environmental policy applied to the coastal zone of the region are proposed.     

Visitors’ perceptions on the management of an important nesting site for loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta L.): The case of Rethymno coastal area in Greece

Tourism has important impacts, both positive and negative, on the management of coastal areas with high biodiversity value. It is therefore important to investigate visitors’ perceptions concerning environmental policy alternatives for these areas along with the factors influencing these perceptions. The present paper aims to investigate visitors’ perceptions of an important nesting ground for loggerhead sea turtles located in a highly touristic area of Greece (Rethymno, Crete) registered in the Natura 2000 network. The paper focuses on the level of environmental awareness of visitors and their perceptions of two proposed policy instruments which will secure funding for the improvement of the environmental management of the area: an entrance fee to the beach and a tax to be levied on local accommodation costs. The influence of social and institutional trust on these perceptions is also explored. According to the results of the study, awareness of the existence of the Natura 2000 site was low. Furthermore, the accommodation tax was regarded as a more effective policy when compared to the entrance fee. Average Willingness to Pay (WTP) was also explored for the two policies, estimated at €1.13 for the daily accommodation tax and €1.59 for the entrance fee. The influence of social and institutional trust had a significant influence both on the perceived level of effectiveness of the proposed policies and the stated Willingness to Pay. The study concludes that the accommodation tax would be a more appropriate policy for the management of Rethymno beach taking into consideration visitors’ perceptions and the current level of trust.     

关于Remsey环境模型的研究

通常采用征收庇古税的方法来解决环境污染的外部性问题 ,以弥补社会成本与私人成本的差额 ,但是不能与实际的减污效果相联系。本文将征收的环境税用于环保产业以减少污染 ,以此为出发点建立了推广的 Remsey环境模型 ,并讨论其解的稳定性及在环境政策上的应用。     

经济发展影响下我国海洋环境污染压力变化趋势及污染减排对策分析

对20世纪90年代以来我国经济发展影响下的海洋环境污染变化趋势进行了分析,指出近年来我国海洋环境污染防治工作取得了一定成效,但近岸海域污染的总体形势依然严峻,并可能随着经济总量的增长而再次恶化,氮磷营养盐超标导致的海水富营养化是近岸海域的主要污染问题。讨论了我国现行的污染物减排策略对海洋污染防治的局限性,并以国家"十二五"发展规划、沿海区域社会经济发展规划为依据,综合分析"十二五"期间我国海洋环境污染防治面临的压力和主要入海污染源的排污特征,建议应对农业非点源开展源头污染控制、对沿海地区点源加强末端治理,实施流域-河口-海域联动的入海污染物减排策略。     

我国近岸海域污染防治对策研究

随着沿海经济的迅猛发展,我国近岸海域污染日益严重,成为影响我国海洋生态文明建设的主要问题之一。文章在全面分析我国近岸海域生态环境状况和存在的主要生态环境问题的基础上,提出以下对策建议:我国近岸海域污染防治应加强陆海统筹,切实削减氮磷入海总量;严格控制填海工程,坚决遏制滨海湿地丧失的势头;围绕关键海洋关键生态过程,实施生态恢复修复工程;加强海洋灾害风险管控,有效预防海洋环境灾害发生;加强海洋生态环境监测,为我国近岸海域的可持续发展提供保障。     

黄河三角洲表层土壤重金属环境质量评价

主要针对黄河三角洲表层土壤及沉积物的重金属分布调查,在2006~2008年间采集表层土壤样品219个(其中浅海湿地25个),并运用受普遍认可的生态危害指数法、单因子及内梅罗污染指数法对黄河三角洲整体进行环境质量评价,得出以下结论:(1)黄河三角洲表层土壤中重金属元素的污染指数从高到低为:CrPbZnAsCuCdHg;(2)浅海湿地的近海表层沉积物中的重金属元素含量较上三角洲平原的表层土壤低,前者最大影响来源于As,土壤样品一级标准率达到96%;后者的最大威胁是As和Cd,土壤样品一级标准率达到88.5%;(3)黄河三角洲表层土壤及近海沉积物的Eri值、RI值、单因子污染指数及综合污染指数均较小,远未达到轻微污染的标准,表明黄河三角洲土壤环境状况较好,整体处于清洁水平。     

To accede or not to accede: An analysis of the current US position related to the United Nations law of the sea

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereafter “UNCLOS”) is one of the most significant legal instruments of modern times, though the United States (US) has yet to join the 167 nations that have signed the document. Until the twentieth century, freedom of the seas led to inequity among nations, violence, and environmental disasters. UNCLOS provides a peaceful legal structure to resolve border disputes and enforce anti-pollution regulations while maintaining freedom of navigation, safety at sea, and marine scientific research efforts. However, the legitimacy of UNCLOS continues to deteriorate as China acts unilaterally while its global economic reach expands. Additionally, the US cannot participate in international agreements to access ocean resources in the deep seabed or claim portions of the Arctic due to non-accession to UNCLOS. Such accession would protect global security as the balance of power otherwise becomes increasingly unstable. The US must also accede to ensure economic development for itself as well as the preservation of coastal resources upon which many nations rely. In conclusion, US non-accession will risk global security, economic development, and the US position of strength.     

海水养殖对近岸海域环境影响的研究进展

本文综述了近几年国内外关于海水养殖对环境的影响及其相应的防治对策的研究进展,并提出加强管理是实现海水养殖业的可持续发展的关键。海水养殖对海域环境的影响主要包括:污染物的排放、养殖水体富营养化、野生鱼类资源的破坏、自然种群的基因污染以及对重要栖息地的破坏等。随着研究的深入,人们已经提出和采取了多种多样的防治措施,但解决问题的关键不是限制养殖业的发展,而是优化养殖业的管理。     

我国滨海湿地生态修复领域规范的现状与分析

滨海湿地是地球上十分重要的一类生态系统, 可为人类社会提供诸如调节气候、降解污染、碳汇氮汇等众多生态服务功能。近年来, 由于气候变化和围填海等开发活动的影响, 我国滨海湿地面积锐减, 功能退化, 面临多种生态问题。为应对滨海湿地退化及日益凸显的生态环境问题, 滨海湿地保护和修复工作逐渐受到重视, 滨海湿地生态修复工程项目的数量和规模也随之急剧增加。滨海湿地生态修复技术规范对滨海湿地生态修复工作具有重要意义, 然而我国滨海湿地生态修复领域规范体系尚不完善, 导致滨海湿地生态修复项目实施无序以及生态修复成效低等问题。本文全面搜集了我国滨海湿地生态修复领域规范, 对检索到的规范进行分类统计与分析, 从而揭示其存在的问题, 主要包括规范体系系统性不足、生态修复理念滞后、规范之间缺乏协调性、规范可操作性差、规范更新迟滞等。针对存在的问题提出了相应的对策建议, 为完善我国滨海湿地生态修复领域规范体系、不断推进我国生态文明建设进程提供参考。     

A sixteen-country mobilization for sustainable fisheries in the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem

The Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem (GCLME) extending from Bissagos Island (Guinea Bissau) in the north to Cabinda (Angola) in the south defines the shared transboundary waters off the coast of western Africa, which embodies some of the major coastal upwelling sub-ecosystems of the world and is an important centre of marine biodiversity and marine food production. The GCLME is characterized by distinctive bathymetry, hydrography, chemistry, and trophodynamics and represents the number 28 Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) ranked among the most productive coastal and offshore waters in the world with rich fishery resources. However, over-exploitation of fisheries, pollution from domestic and industry sources, habitat destruction and poorly planned and managed coastal developments and near-shore activities are resulting in a rapid depletion of the rich fisheries resources and degradation of vulnerable coastal and offshore habitats putting the economies, productivity and health of the populace at risk. Recognizing the urgency of the fisheries decline and the environmental and socio-economic consequences for the region, the 16 countries bordering the ecosystem have mobilized complementary resources to the funding from the Global Environment Facility and United Nations Industrial Development Organization to implement priority management actions agreed in the preliminary Strategic Action Programme for the recovery of depleted fish stocks and restoration of degraded habitats for the advancement of the achievement of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Johannesburg Plan of Implementation targets for recovery of fish stocks.     

河口和沿岸海域生态环境质量综合评价方法评介

海洋环境管理从以往单纯的海洋污染管理已发展到当前的海洋生态环境综合管理。相应地,海洋环境质量评价也从以往单一的污染状况评价(包括水质、沉积物和生物体)发展到海洋生态环境质量综合评价。重点介绍了2种有代表性并被广泛应用的河口和沿岸海域生态环境质量综合评价方法———欧盟的“生态状况评价综合方法”和美国的“沿岸海域状况综合评价”。比较和评析了2种方法的异同和优缺点。建议尽快建立适合中国河口和沿岸海域特点的海洋生态环境质量综合评价方法以及相应的监测和管理体系。     

Public perception of development issues: Public awareness can contribute to sustainable development of a small island

Many development projects are undertaken in communities where the local inhabitants have little or no input to the planning and implementation of such projects. Encouraging the active participation of local communities in development projects, through capacity-building and environmental education, has become a major objective of sound development programmes. We have successfully included the local community of Holbox Island, Quintana Roo State, Mexico in our programme for long-term monitoring of coastal pollution in and around their Island. Here we report the progress made by different sectors of the Holbox community over a four-year period during which they have become increasingly responsible for the scientific and technical aspects of assessing water quality. A face-to-face, structured survey was used to evaluate attitudes and perceptions with regard to coastal water pollution and other development issues that concern the Holbox Island community. People in Holbox identified coastal pollution, coastal erosion and garbage dumping as major environmental concerns and have acquired a good level of awareness about the causes and consequences of these issues. Our results also indicate that the public has an improved understanding of the interrelationship between their own behaviour, and that of others, and these environmental issues. Our contribution in the Holbox Island has made a positive step towards providing the local community with essential knowledge regarding environmental, development and social issues, thereby enabling them to become actively involved in the environmental conservation of their island. Continuing efforts in capacity-building and environmental education aim to provide the local community with the knowledge and skills that are necessary for making appropriate choices for the preservation and development of Holbox and the surrounding ecosystems. In the long term, the local community will not only be able to contribute directly to on-going development projects, but will also be in a better position to participate with government agencies in the decision-making process.     

春、夏季惠州市海水环境质量及其有机污染评价

为加强惠州市海洋生态环境保护工作,并为其提供科学依据,文章利用2016年春季和夏季惠州市海洋环境综合调查数据,选取溶解氧、化学需氧量、无机氮和活性磷酸盐4个环境因子,分析其近岸海域和海洋基本功能区的海水环境质量,并评价海水有机污染状况。研究结果表明:春季近岸海域海水环境质量优于夏季,无机氮和活性磷酸盐为主要超标因子;港口航运区海水环境质量良好,其他功能区均有环境因子超标现象;近岸海域受到有机污染,旅游休闲娱乐区在2个季节均受到有机污染;海水环境尚未对海洋生物产生影响。     

Benthic recovery during open sea fish farming abatement in Western Mediterranean, Spain

Fish farming is an important source of organic matter input in coastal waters, which contributes to eutrophication. In this study, the macrofaunal benthic community was studied after the cessation of fish farming with the aim of improving our understanding of benthic succession and sediment recovery in a marine ecosystem. The results showed that the best environmental variables for assessing organic pollution were acid-volatile sulfides (AVS) and redox potential. Succession and recovery was best explained by macrofaunal analysis based on community composition as well as on trophic groups. The patterns of recovery differed between each impacted station. For this reason, succession could not be accurately predicted due to the unique environmental parameters and the singular community functional structure of each location. The Azti Marine Benthic Index (AMBI) proved its validity for assessing pollution but did not distinguish between successional stages.     

Perspectives of the coastal and marine fisheries of the Bay of Bengal,Bangladesh

Bangladesh has vast coastal and marine resources along its south edge. Due to the geographical position and climatic condition, the coastal area of the country is known as one of the highly productive areas of the world. Bangladesh is rich not only in terms of its vast water areas but also in terms of the biological diversity. One of the unique features of the coastal areas is the influence of the mangrove forests, which support a high number of fishes and other commercially important aquatic organisms. The biological and ecological values of the Bay of Bengal have been pointed out by many authors. The coastal and marine fisheries have been playing considerable roles not only in the social and economic development of the country but also in the regional ecological balance. A large number of commercially important fishes have long been exploited which are of high export values. Shrimp aquaculture has become a highly traded export-oriented industry for the last few decades. In spite of having bright prospects, marine aquaculture on a commercial basis as well as marine stock enhancement and sea ranching are yet to be developed. The marine fisheries sector has been suffering from chronic disintegration and mismanagement that have led to many consequences. Most of the commercially important fish stocks are either overexploited or under threat. Marine pollution has reached a level that could create an unmanageable situation in the near future; coastal shrimp farming has generated considerable debates due to its adverse environmental and socioeconomic impacts. The Bay of Bengal and its coastal areas are one of the most poorly studied areas of the world although it possesses high potential for further stock improvement. Proper attention is needed in every aspect of exploitation, handling and processing, export and marketing as well as in biological and institutional management strategies. The Bay of Bengal has been increasingly important for local development as well as for a global perspective. The coastal and marine fisheries of the Bay of Bengal are briefly reviewed in this paper to provide a salient feature of the available information and resource base and to identify future research and management needs.     

Managing coastal area resources by stated choice experiments

In many coastal regions, oil spills can be considered as one of the most important and certainly the most noticeable forms of marine pollution. Efficient contingency management responding to oil spills on waters, which aims at minimizing pollution effects on coastal resources, turns out to be critically important. Such a decision making highly depends on the importance attributed to different coastal economic and ecological resources. Economic uses can, in principal, be addressed by standard measures such as value added. However, there is a missing of market in the real world for natural goods. Coastal resources such as waters and beach cannot be directly measured in money terms, which increases the risk of being neglected in a decision making process. This paper evaluates these natural goods of coastal environment in a hypothetical market by employing stated choice experiments. Oil spill management practice in German North Sea is used as an example. Results from a pilot survey show that during a combat process, beach and eider ducks are of key concerns for households. An environmental friendly combat option has to be a minor cost for households. Moreover, households with less children, higher monthly income and a membership of environmental organization are more likely to state that they are willing to pay for combat option to prevent coastal resources from an oil pollution. Despite that choice experiments require knowledge of designing questionnaire and statistical skills to deal with discrete choices and conducting a survey is time consumed, the results have important implications for oil spill contingency management. Overall, such a stated preference method can offer useful information for decision makers to consider coastal resources into a decision making process and can further contribute to finding a cost-effective oil preventive measure, also has a wide application potential in the field of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).