Shallow resistivity measurement for cathodic protection of pipelines in the Niger Delta

The variation in the geo-electric resistivity of the superficial soils across the Niger Delta was investigated by running profiles spanning over 350 km and covering all the geomorphic zones of the Niger Delta, using a Schlumberger electrode configuration. The results indicate characteristic resistivity ranges. The spatial variation in resistivity was explained by differences in topographic elevation, depth to water table, soil type, and water quality. Based on the soil resistivities in the various geomorphic zones, the corrosivity of the soils were determined and methods of cathodic protection prescribed. A north–south traverse will generally experience a decreasing soil resistivity that is truncated at the beach ridges.     

利用非平衡态温度测井数据估算地温梯度

掌握真实地温梯度对于深入了解易受温压场控制的天然气水合物赋存状态具有重要意义。在南海天然气水合物钻探区获取的地温梯度主要以海底表层的热流探针方式为主,由于海底表层尚未压实,地层物理属性多呈现高渗透性,易受到海底底流影响,导致了部分地温梯度无法推算到较深地层。而另一方面,井下原位温度测量虽然可获取真实的地温梯度,但其经济成本昂贵并且时效性低。为此本研究依据天然气水合物钻探井位单一非平衡态温度测井数据和钻井进程,在前人的数学模型基础上,尝试现场快速恢复地层地温梯度的操作,并利用有限的原位地温梯度进行对比分析。研究结果表明,该方法在一定程度上具有适用性,当测井温度变化率在较均匀层段（例如A-B段）,根据测井进程可大致估算具有参考意义的原始地温梯度。但应用该方法时也须谨慎,避免使用测井温度变化率在非均匀的数据段（例如B-C段）,因为模型中受到数学条件而忽略的多种不确定因素的权重,在外部参数环境波动较大时有可能增加,从而减弱了模拟过程中时间因子的主要作用量。     

昆仑山地区冻融土导热系数试验测试与预测模型研究

为探究青藏高原工程走廊带昆仑山地区冻融土导热系数基本特征,采用瞬态平面热源法对钻取的349组冻土试样和245组融土试样导热系数进行了测试,分析了五类土导热系数分布特征及天然含水率、干密度与导热系数的偏相关性,并以两者为变量因素建立了经验公式拟合、支持向量回归（SVR）和径向基（RBF）神经网络导热系数预测模型。结果表明:冻融土导热系数整体均呈粗颗粒土大于细颗粒土特征,且冻土和融土导热系数随土性分布规律存在差异;天然含水率、干密度与导热系数均呈正相关性,不同土类偏相关性结果差异明显,典型土导热系数二元经验回归方程表现为非线性拟合结果。对比三种预测模型下各典型土冻融土导热系数预测结果,全风化千枚岩、角砾及砾砂三种预测模型效果整体较佳,粉土的SVR及RBF神经网络预测精度较好;融土导热系数预测效果整体略优于冻土,SVR及RBF神经网络模型下角砾、粉土及全风化千枚岩融土导热系数预测精度较高。综合导热系数模型预测效果和误差结果分析可得,SVR和RBF神经网络模型预测效果显著优于经验方程拟合,后者针对部分土性拟合效果相对较好,可满足一般工程估算需求;SVR和RBF神经网络预测模型针对不同土性导热系数预测效果呈差异性变化,整体预测效果相当,且预测精度更高、应用土性范围更广。     

Prognostication of hydrocarbon generative potential in the onshore and offshore Niger Delta,Nigeria using TOC content and rock-eval pyrolysis techniques

This article prognosticates the hydrocarbon generation potential of core samples from fields A, B, C and D in Niger delta, Nigeria. The objectives of this study are to characterize the quality of these core samples by organic geochemical analyses. A total of ten core samples collected from fields A, B, C and D in Niger delta were analyzed using total organic carbon （TOC） content analysis, rock-eval pyrolysis technique. The analytical results of the stud- ied core samples reveal that they have generally high total organic carbon contents （TOC）, suggesting that conditions in the Niger delta favour organic matter production and preservation. There is a variation in the kerogen types and this may be attributed to the relative stratigraphic positions of the core samples within the Niger delta. The rock-eval results indicate that the samples from fields C and D contain predominantly Type II kerogen with a capacity to gen- erate oil and gas and hence have good generative potential. The samples from fields A and B contain mainly Type III kerogen and are gas-prone with moderate generative potential.     

Requirements for accurate estimation of fractal parameters for self-affine roughness profiles using the line scaling method

Summary A new concept of feature size range of a roughness profile is introduced in the paper. It is shown that this feature size range plays an important role in estimating the fractal dimension,D, accurately using the divider method. Discussions are given to indicate the difficulty of using both the divider and the box methods in estimatingD accurately for self-affine profiles. The line scaling method's capability in quantifying roughness of natural rock joint profiles, which may be self-affine, is explored. Fractional Brownian profiles (self-affine profiles) with and without global trends were generated using known values ofD, input standard deviation, , and global trend angles. For different values of the input parameter of the line scaling method (step sizea ₀),D and another associated fractal parameterC were calculated for the aforementioned profiles. Suitable ranges fora ₀ were estimated to obtain computedD within ±10% of theD used for the generation. Minimum and maximum feature sizes of the profiles were defined and calculated. The feature size range was found to increase with increasingD and , in addition to being dependent on the total horizontal length of the profile and the total number of data points in the profile. The suitable range fora ₀ was found to depend on bothD and , and then, in turn, on the feature size range, indicating the importance of calculating feature size range for roughness profiles to obtain accurate estimates for the fractal parameters. Procedures are given to estimate the suitablea ₀ range for a given natural rock joint profile to use with the line scaling method in estimating fractal parameters within ±10% error. Results indicate the importance of removal of global trends of roughness profiles to obtain accurate estimates for the fractal parameters. The parametersC andD are recommended to use with the line scaling method in quantifying stationary roughness. In addition, one or more parameters should be used to quantify the non-stationary part of roughness, if it exists. The estimatedC was found to depend on bothD and and seems to have potential to capture the scale effect of roughness profiles.     

Continuous permeability predictions in heterogeneous reservoirs using Vshale and microstructure calibrated free-fluid models (a combined study of a Niger Delta field and the tight gas sandstone of the southern North Sea)

The well-established free-fluid model from NMR technique provides continuous permeability values that closely match with core permeabilities better than most theoretical models especially when it is core calibrated for field specific use. However, only few wells have NMR logs in a field while marginal fields may not have any due to economic reasons. This study explored means of achieving one of the overriding objectives of most marginal field operators, which is to reduce the overall cost of production to the attainable minimum. The free-fluid model was modified into two simple and cost-effective models in order to optimize its applicability to predict permeability in the absence of NMR data. The two new models, which were developed for the single and double porosity systems analyzed in this study, consist of calibration parameters that can be empirically determined to account for variation in reservoir quality based on the rock type profile per field. A non-matrix parameter, α, was introduced into the model derived for tight gas sandstone being regarded as a double-porosity formation. This inclusion represents the permeability contribution of natural fractures or any crack-like pores to the different flow units. By using the alternative version to the known free-fluid model, continuous permeability curves that match experimental results were predicted without NMR logs.     

Constraining the genetic relationships of 25-norhopanes,hopanoic and 25-norhopanoic acids in onshore Niger Delta oils using a temperature-dependent material balance

Analysis of oil samples from the Niger Delta (Nigeria) revealed a range of structurally related hopanes, including 25-norhopanes, and hopanoic and 25-norhopanoic acids. 25-Norhopanes were detected in all medium and heavily biodegraded oils and were most abundant in the heavily degraded oils. Hopanoic acids (C₃₀-C₃₃) and 25-norhopanoic acids (C₃₀-C₃₁) were most abundant in moderately degraded oils and occurred in reduced concentration in heavily degraded oils but were absent from, or in trace concentration in, slightly degraded oils. Consideration of the structures suggests that 25-norhopanoic acids form via carboxylation of 25-norhopanes or demethylation of hopanoic acids. Mass balance for the onshore Niger Delta oils suggests that formation of 25-norhopanes operates independently of 25-norhopanoic acid formation and that 25-norhopanoic acids are likely transient intermediates for only a small proportion of the 25-norhopanes.     

Hydrocarbon maturation modeling of Paleocene to Lower Miocene source rocks in the Niger Delta Basin: implications for hydrocarbon generation

This study evaluates the hydrocarbon generation potentials and time of generation for Paleocene to Lower Miocene source rock horizons from A-1, B-1, B-2, and C-1 wells in the Niger Delta Basin using 1D Petromod modeling software. Wells A-1, B-1 and B-2, and C-1 are located within the Central Swamp, the Coastal Swamp, and the Shallow Offshore depobelts, respectively. The thermal history was derived from the rifting–subsidence heat flow model. Maturity modeling were carried out by using Easy%Ro kinetic model and a heat flow history predicting present-day heat flow which were calibrated with measured temperature data. Results of the study suggest that these potential source rocks have attained maturity status to generate hydrocarbons, with vast differences existing in the timing of the onset of oil generation. Basin modeling suggests that Paleocene source rocks entered the oil generative window from the Oligocene to Miocene times with thermal maturity window that varies from gas generation to early-mature phase. The Eocene source rocks have also attained maturity from Miocene to Pliocene times, and their thermal maturity ranges from gas generation to early maturity stage. The Oligocene source rocks also began to generate oil during the Miocene and are currently within the early-mature to mid-mature stage. The thermal maturity window for the Lower Miocene source rocks ranges from immature to early-mature stage. The present modeling results reveals that higher levels of thermal maturity are attained in areas with high geothermal gradients and heat flow values while the cooler areas exhibits lower levels of maturation. The onset of the oil window lies at 2859 m at A-1 (Central Swamp), 3240 m at B-2 (Coastal Swamp), 4732 m at B-1 (Coastal Swamp), and 4344 m at C-1 (Shallow Offshore). The depth to the onset of oil window is found deeper in the Shallow Offshore and western parts of the study area than in the eastern and northwestern parts. The result of this study suggest that the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, and Lower Miocene source rocks are the principal source rocks for oil and gas generation in the Niger Delta Basin.     

Determining the circulation depth of thermal springs in the southern Rocky Mountain Trench, south-eastern British Columbia, Canada using geothermometry and borehole temperature logs

Geochemical data for thermal spring waters along the southern Rocky Mountain Trench in British Columbia, Canada were examined. The range of equilibration temperatures for the thermal springs is between 24 and 59°C, assuming that there is minimal mixing with colder shallow waters that might lead to a lowering of the calculated equilibration temperature. The chalcedony geothermometer is found to be the most appropriate given the carbonate host rocks. Temperature logs from 11 boreholes in the vicinity were used to calculate representative geothermal gradients, which range from 23.8 to 55.7°C/km with an average of 24.8±8.0°C/km. Using the average gradient and the range of equilibration temperatures calculated for each spring, the minimum range for the depth of origin of the thermal waters is 0.9–2.2 km. Heat flow values range from 90.3 to 155 mW/m², with an average of 109.1±21.0 mW/m². The moderate to high heat flow and heat generation result in generally higher temperatures at shallow depths, thus offering an explanation for the occurrence of thermal springs. The alignment of the thermal springs likely relates to the preferred northwest–southeast orientation for major thrust faults along the Rocky Mountain Trench, and with waters routed from depth along deep faults.

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Resumen Se examinan datos geoquímicos de aguas de fuentes termales a lo largo de la Trinchera sur de las Montañas Rocosas en Columbia Británica, Canadá. El rango de temperaturas de equilibrio para las fuentes termales se encuentra entre 24 y 59°C, asumiendo que existe mezcla mínima con aguas someras más frías que podrían conducir a un descenso de la temperatura de equilibrio calculada. El geotermómetro de calcedonia se ha encontrado que es el más apropiado debido a las rocas encajonantes carbonatadas. Se utilizaron los registros de temperatura de 11 pozos de la zona para calcular gradientes geotermales representativos, los cuales varían de 23.8 a 55.7°C/km con un promedio de 24.8±8.0°C/km. Utilizando el gradiente promedio y el rango de temperaturas de equilibrio calculadas para cada manantial, se estimó que el rango mínimo para la profundidad de origen de las aguas termales varía de 0.9 a 2.2 km. Los valores de flujo de calor varían de 90.3 a 155 mW/m², con un promedio de 109.1±21.0 mW/m². El flujo de calor moderado a alto y la generación de calor resultan en temperaturas generalmente más altas a profundidades someras ofreciendo de este modo una explicación para la ocurrencia de fuentes termales. El alineamiento de fuentes termales posiblemente se relaciona con la orientación preferida noroeste-sureste de fallas inversas principales a lo largo de la Trinchera de las Montañas Rocosas, y con aguas ascendentes profundas que se mueven a lo largo de fallas profundas.

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Résumé Les données géothermiques de sources thermales le long de la partie sud du fossé des Montagnes Rocheuses en Colombie Britannique, Canada, sont étudiées. Léchelle des températures déquilibre des sources thermales se situe entre 24 et 59°C, en assumant quil y a un mélange minimum avec les eaux froides de surface, ce qui conduit à une sous-évaluation de la température déquilibre. La calcédoine apparaît être le géothermomètre le plus approprié vu les roches hôtes carbonatées. Les diagraphies de température provenant de 11 forages proches ont été utilisées pour calculer le gradient géothermique représentatif, gradient compris entre 23.8 et 55.7°/km avec une moyenne de 24.8°/km. En utilisant le gradient moyen et les valeurs de température déquilibre calculées pour chaque source, la profondeur minimum des eaux thermales se situerait entre 0.9 et 2.2 km. Les flux de chaleur sont évalués entre 90.3 et 155 mW/m, avec une moyenne de 109.1±21.0 mW/m. Le transfert moyen de chaleur et la génération de chaleur résulte en températures ordinairement plus élevées aux faibles profondeurs, qui ainsi offre une explication à loccurrence de sources thermales. Les alignements de sources thermales sont vraisemblablement en relation avec lorientation Nord-Sud des principales failles-vraies le long du fossé des Montagnes Rocheuses, et avec lécoulement des eaux des profondeurs le long des failles.

     

Application of the representer method for parameter estimation in numerical reservoir models

A data assimilation method was applied to estimate poorly known parameters (permeabilities) in a numerical reservoir model. Most variational methods for data assimilation are based on the assumption that the model is perfect except for the poorly known parameters. The representer method allows also for model errors, i.e. for uncertainties in the state variables (pressures and saturations). The method is based on minimizing a cost functional, assuming all the errors and parameters to be multivariate Gaussian random variables with given mean and covariances. The uncertain parameters and variables are expanded into a finite sum of basis functions called representers, and the gradients of the cost functional are obtained with an adjoint method. This approach gives an optimal parametrization in the sense that the final result is equal to the solution of the full inverse problem. The method was tested on a simple one-dimensional model to simulate two-phase (oil-water) flow through a heterogeneous reservoir. The results show that the method is able to provide an acceptable estimate of the permeability field. We used pressure measurements from a small number of observation wells in between the injection and production wells, but the representer method could be used equally well to assimilate data from other sources. The method appears to be a promising data assimilation tool for applications in reservoir engineering.     

原位“Darcy实验”方法研究与实践

在室内Darcy实验原理和装置的基础上,设计了一套原位“Darcy实验”装置,原位试验条件满足Darcy定律的假定条件,能够应用Darcy定律确定包气带浅表层土的渗透系数.与室内“Darcy实验”相比,原位“Darcy实验”的测试结果更能准确地反映结构性土野外状态下的渗透性能.与其它原位试验相比,该方法在获取渗透系数方面具有试验装置简单、操作方便、观测数据直观的优点.应用该方法在中国西北部半干旱的黄土台塬开展了3组测试,成功地求取了区内包气带浅表层饱和黄土的垂向渗透系数,并将测试结果与双环试验、室内渗透试验、抽水试验及颗粒分析方法求得的渗透系数结果进行对比分析,发现应用原位“Darcy实验”求取的渗透系数更能准确地反映包气带浅表层土的渗透性能.同时,总结和探讨了一套原位“Darcy实验”的技术方法.     

长江三角洲晚新生代沉积物有机碳、总氮和碳酸盐组成及古环境意义

长江三角洲地区埋深达320m的PD钻孔揭示了上新世以来河湖相、滨海相和三角洲相的沉积环境特征。钻孔沉积物中有机碳、总氮和碳酸盐组成变化较大,但具有一定的规律性。上新世东部地区气候较暖湿,古湖泊发育,化学风化强烈,有机质保存率较低;早更新世气候波动较大,相对温湿气候下高等植被发育;中、晚更新世长江流域气候逐渐变冷干,晚第四纪气候变化较显著,流域植被类型发生明显变化;全新世气候转暖,有机质保存率高。有机碳、总氮和碳酸盐组成揭示的古气候变化与孢粉、沉积地层等资料相当吻合,与相邻内陆地区的第四纪古环境研究认识也具有明显的可比性。本研究也揭示,运用有机碳、总氮和碳酸盐组成重建我国东部地区第四纪古环境和季风演化史具有相当的难度,必须充分考虑沉积地层不连续性、粒度、有机质来源、埋藏成岩环境以及陆海相互作用等多因素的复杂影响,同时需要结合有机碳同位素等分析来深化古环境研究。     

Froth structure in continuous flotation cells: Relation to the prediction of plant performance from laboratory data using process models

The paper discusses the obstacles in the way of making mathematical models of flotation circuits for use in process design; and describes also a route towards simple, but practical, models of full-scale flotation plant performance, which overcome the major problems. The principal difficulties lie in simulating the froth processes at full-scale. Timed batch tests may be used to identify the pulp-froth transfer processes, and steady-state (“equilibrium”) cell tests may be used to identify static froth concentration profiles. Froth mobility in a real cell is different from that in an “equilibrium” cell, and this paper shows how these dynamic patterns have been investigated, and may be used to simulate full-scale circuits. It is shown that it is not possible, at the present time, to completely eliminate judgement and experience from the establishment of parameter values; but the position should improve as experience accumulates.     

Assessing the applicability of conceptual hydrological models for design flood estimation in small-scale watersheds of northern China

Natural Hazards - The estimation of design flood is mainly focused on the peak flow and the volume, ignoring the underlying surface factor and flood rising and falling process. Three basic...     

Statistical models for the assessment of nitrate contamination in urban groundwater using GIS

The purpose of this study is to develop statistical models for groundwater quality assessment in urban areas using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). To develop the models, the concentrations of nitrate (expressed as nitrogen, NO₃-N), which are different according to the type of land use, well depth and distribution of rainfall, were analyzed in the Seoul (the capital of South Korea) area. Data such as land use, location of wells and groundwater quality data for nitrate contamination were collected and a database constructed within GIS. The distribution of NO₃-N concentrations is not normal, and the results of the Mann-Whitney U-test analysis show the difference of NO₃-N concentration by well depth and by distribution of rainfall. In both the shallow and deep wells, the radius of influence is 200 m in the dry season and 250 m in the rainy season, showing the tendency to increase in the rainy season. The results of correlation and regression analysis indicate that mixed residential and business areas and cropped field areas are likely to be the major contributor of increasing NO₃-N concentration. Land uses are better correlated with NO₃-N in deep wells than in shallow wells.     

Elucidation of different forms of organic carbon in marine sediments from the Atlantic coast of Spain using thermal analysis coupled to isotope ratio and quadrupole mass spectrometry

Analysis of river, estuary and marine sediments from the Atlantic coast of Spain using thermogravimetry–differential scanning calorimetry–quadrupole mass spectrometry–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (TG–DSC–QMS–IRMS) was used to (a) distinguish bulk chemical hosts for C within a sediment and humic acid fraction, (b) track C pools with differing natural C isotope ratios and (c) observe variation with distance from the coast. This is the first application of such a novel method to the characterisation of organic matter from marine sediments and their corresponding humic acid fractions. Using thermal analysis, a labile, a recalcitrant and a refractory carbon pool can be distinguished. Extracted humic fractions are mainly of recalcitrant nature. The proportion of refractory carbon is greatest in marine sediments and humic acid fractions. Quadrupole mass spectrometry confirmed that the greatest proportion of m/z 44 (CO₂) and m/z 18 (H₂O) were detected at temperatures associated with recalcitrant carbon (510–540 °C). Isotope analysis detected progressive enrichment in δ¹³C for the sediment samples with an increase in marine influence. Isotopic heterogeneity in the refractory organic matter in marine sediments could be due to products of anthropogenic origin or natural combustion products. Isotope homogeneity of humic acids confirms the presence of terrigenous C in marine sediments, allowing the terrestrial input to be characterised.     

Proton conduction and hydrogen diffusion in olivine: an attempt to reconcile laboratory and field observations and implications for the role of grain boundary diffusion in enhancing conductivity

Proton conduction in olivine is directly related to the diffusion rate of hydrogen by the Nernst–Einstein equation, but prior attempts to use this relationship have always invoked additional terms to try to reconcile laboratory measurements of proton conduction and hydrogen diffusion data. New diffusion experiments on olivine demonstrate that lattice diffusion associated with vacancies is indeed highly dependent on the defect site where hydrogen is bonded, but from none of the sites is diffusion fast enough to explain the observed laboratory proton conduction experiments. Hydrogen diffusion associated with polarons (redox-exchange) is significantly faster but still cannot explain the low activation energy typical of electrical conductivity measurements. A process of bulk diffusion, which combines lattice diffusion (either associated with redox-exchange or vacancies) with the far faster grain boundary diffusion, explains the laboratory results, but does not explain the field observations with an average grain size of 0.5–2 cm at 100 km below the Jagersfontein kimberlite field on the Kaapvaal craton. Either conduction is dominantly along well-interconnected grain boundaries of very fine-grained (0.01 mm) damp (80 wt ppm) olivine grains or fine-grained (0.05 mm), wet (400 wt ppm) pyroxene grains, or another conduction mechanism must be primarily responsible for the field observations. If diffusion is the correct explanation, the conductivity below the Gibeon kimberlite field in Namibia is too high to be explained by increased thermal state alone of a diffusion process, even for such fine-grained pyroxenes.     

Occurrence of tephra / volcanic tuff in the tertiary sediments of Himachal Himalaya from Tileli area,Mandi district,H.P.: Implication for stratigraphy and uranium mineralization

Presence of Early Tertiary pyroclastic material (tephra) has been documented petrographically, for the first time, in the Mandi-Bilaspur Sector from Tileli area, Dharamsala basin of Himachal Pradesh. The tephra is reported from the red shale, identified as tuffaceous siltstone belonging to lower Dharamsala Formation that lies above the uraniferous sandstone body and occurs as thin layers of over 300m along the strike, close to the contact of lower and upper Dharamsala formations. The tuffaceous material shows crude but preferred orientation of minerals like biotite, muscovite, chlorite, clay, hematite and specularite. Various features indicating presence of tephra are, glass shards altered to clay but retaining ‘U’ shaped outline, spindle-shaped hematite with preferred orientation, spherical to sub-spherical clay and altered Feoxide rich balls, clay groundmass with flow pattern, flaky minerals in association with clast depicting asymmetrical ramp structure. A zone of approximately 300 m length containing tuffaceous material has been established at Tileli overlying the uraniferous sandstone body. Identification of tephra at Tileli has significant implications as it enabled in demarcating the boundary between the upper and lower Dharamsala formations in central part of the basin in Bilaspur-Mandi Sector of HP Himalaya and also in guiding the uranium exploration programme in the lower Dharamsala Formation.