公海渔业制度的发展及我国的公海渔业权益

<联合国海洋法公约>及以后出台的一系列国际渔业协定、决议或公约促进了公海渔业制度的发展.本文阐述了公海及公海渔业的基本概念,介绍了现行公海渔业制度的主要内容,探讨了公海渔业制度的特征和今后发展趋势.在此基础上,分析了我国公海渔业现状,提出维护我国公海渔业权益的相应措施:(1)合理调整作业类型,积极开发新渔场;(2)建立国家级远洋渔船档案制度和捕捞数据收集制度;(3)积极加入国际渔业组织,在国际渔业管理中争取我国的权益;(4)建立违规渔船的惩罚制度;(5)加强远洋船员教育,提高远洋人员素质.     

国际法视阈中的北极争端

环北极国家针对北极的科考行动引发的争端,并非对北极主权的争夺,其实质是对北极地区海底大陆架的争夺。从国际法角度看,北极属国际海域,而非无主地;其海底应为国家管辖范围或国际海底区域,而非国家领土;各国对北极海底拥有的只能是主权权利而非主权;目前国家间的争端应通过多边谈判,利用外交途径解决。     

公海保护区问题初探

公海自由原则是《联合国海洋法公约》确立的重要制度。２０世纪９０年代以后,随着管辖范围以内海域确权的完成及海洋环境与海洋资源问题的不断出现,国家管辖范围以外海洋的保护问题被广泛讨论。公海保护区就是一种全新的公海保护方法。尽管目前在公海建立海洋保护区仍然存在诸多亟待解决的问题,各国关于公海保护区建设的立场也不尽相同,但公海保护区作为一种全新的生物多样性就地保护形式已经付诸国际实践。我国历来重视公海事务,也在公海保护领域做出诸多努力。在公海保护区问题上,我国应当加强公海保护区制度研究,促进公海资源的有效保护与可持续利用,既能履行一个负责任大国在国际海洋事务中应尽的义务,又能最大限度地维护我国在公海的利益。     

公海渔业的管理趋势

1 公海的概念和范围 公海,作为一法律概念,已有很长的历史。它的地位及其所指的范围随着时间的推移而有所变更。按照国际法的传统观念,各国领海以外不受任何国家管辖和支配的海域统称公海。随着专属经济区和大陆架制度的确立,在领海范围以外还存在着国际管辖范围内的海域。这样“领海以外就是公海”就不能     

日本对北冰洋油气资源的战略考量

全球变暖使北冰洋海冰融化之势越来越快,北冰洋的航运以及一直尘封海底的石油和天然气资源开始受到越来越多的关注。中国与日本同为能源严重依赖进口的非北极国家,在北极航道及资源利用上既存在合作前景又是潜在的竞争对手。在分析近年日本学者对北极油气资源利用的研究结果基础上,综合了日本学者为政府提出的各种建议,分析了日本对北极油气资源开发利用的态度,总结了日本政府在利用北极资源方面所采取的系列措施。为我国学者研究日本在当前国际能源和地缘格局下对北极油气资源的战略考量提供参考。     

北极:机遇与挑战

<正>北冰洋有三条航道连接着东方和西方。东北航道的大部分航段位于俄罗斯北部沿海。从摩尔曼斯克出发,航行5620海里可向东穿过巴伦支海、喀拉海、拉普捷夫海、新西伯利亚海和楚科奇海5大海域,达到白令海峡和远东的符拉迪沃斯托克。西北航道大部分航段位于加拿大北极群岛水域,以白令海峡为起点,沿美国阿拉斯加北部海域向东,穿过加拿大北极诸岛,直到戴维斯海峡。北冰洋理论上还有一条穿越北极点航线:从白令海峡出发,不走俄罗斯或北美沿岸,直接穿过北冰洋中心     

公海的法律制度简述

1958年《公海公约》规定,“公海”是指“不属于任何一国领海及内水的海洋的所有部分”。随着1982年《联合国海洋法公约》(以下简称《公约》的生效,公海的内容已发生变化。“公海”为“不包括在国家的专属经济区、领海或内水或群岛国的群岛水域内的全部海域”。这样一来,就把专属经济区和群岛水域排除在公海之外,使公海的范围进一步缩小,目前大约占全部海洋面积的60％。     

论国际组织决议在公海生物多样性保护中的作用

公海生物多样性的保护已成为目前国际海洋事务的一个热点问题,但至今还没有专门针对公海生物多样性保护的国际条约,许多全球性和区域性的国际组织决议在该领域起到了关键的指导作用,并将在未来很长一段时间内继续发挥重要的规范作用。我国应高度重视国际组织决议在公海生物多样性保护中的重要性,积极参与相关国际组织决议的制定过程,促进公海生物多样性国际法律制度的完善,维护我国海洋权益,为我国海洋开发管理事业的全面发展打造更为广阔的平台。     

2011-2014年中国北极物理海洋学的研究进展

过去十几年北极的快速变化以海冰变化为主要特征。然而,在冰-海-气变化系统中海洋起着关键性的作用。海洋是北极变化的关键因素,不仅影响着海冰的融化与冻结等过程,而且是大气变化的主要能量来源。在北极海冰快速变化的背景下,北冰洋的海洋特征也发生了一系列的变化。第四次国际极地年之后我国在北极科学研究中取得了一系列的进展,本文从北冰洋水团、锋面、海流等主要水文现象,以及上层海洋结构等方面,总结了2011-2014年我国在北极物理海洋学方面取得的一系列成果。     

解决北极争端的法律机制分析

随着北极冰层的日渐消融,北极的战略价值逐渐凸显,北极争端也随之加强。现有法律机制——《联合国海洋法公约》无法单独解决该地区的领土争端,特别是大陆架主权争端;环北极各国可能利用《公约》之外的传统国际法原则来论证其主张的合法性;从世界共同发展的角度出发,目前解决该争端最可行的方法是仿效"南极条约"建立一个专门适用于北极的多边国际条约。     

The emerging politics of the Arctic Ocean. Future management of the living marine resources

This article seeks to identify and analyze the most important political issues at stake with respect to the ongoing process regarding the future management of living resources in the high seas of the Arctic Ocean. Through assessing the potential for future commercial utilization of marine resources in the Arctic Ocean and analyzing the differences between the interests of engaged stakeholders in the process, the article seeks to answer whose interests and norms seem to most strongly influence the unfolding political processes and preliminary outcomes. The article concludes by identifying how the five Arctic coastal states have retained the upper hand in this process through skilled political entrepreneurship, the devotion of necessary resources and the political commitment of their respective governments.     

北极海域海面风场和海浪遥感观测能力分析

卫星遥感是开展北极海域海面风场和海浪分布特征与变化规律研究的重要手段。本文基于在轨多源卫星遥感数据,从遥感观测空间覆盖、时间覆盖和多源卫星遥感数据融合等方面开展北极海域海面风场与海浪遥感观测能力分析,研究主要结果为:基于ASCAT和HY-2A散射计可实现北极海域海面风场遥感观测,通过多星联合观测可获取北极海域时空分辨率优于12 h和0.1°的海面风场遥感融合数据;基于HY-2A、CryoSat-2、SARAL和Sentinel-3高度计可实现北极海域海浪遥感观测,同样通过多星联合观测可获取北极海域时空分辨率优于1 d和0.25°的海浪有效波高遥感融合数据;基于2016年北极海面风场和海浪遥感融合数据,分析得出北极海域海面风场和海浪在2月处于极大值,然后逐渐减小,7月最小,随后开始逐渐增大。本研究表明,基于多源散射计和高度计遥感观测可实现北极海域海面风场和海浪的高时空分辨率遥感业务化监测。     

北极河流径流对北冰洋环流的影响

北极河流径流是北冰洋淡水的最大来源,其变化会对北冰洋中的诸多过程有重要影响。本文基于全球高分辨率海洋?海冰耦合模式的模拟结果,研究北冰洋温盐、海冰以及环流对北极河流径流的敏感性。通过对比有气候态北极河流径流输入的控制实验结果和径流完全关闭的敏感性实验结果,研究发现北极径流对北冰洋温度、盐度、海冰以及海洋环流等有显著的影响。关闭北极河流径流后,在河口附近的陆架上温度降低、盐度升高,且导致500 m深度处温度下降以及盐度升高;河口附近的陆架处,海冰密集度与海冰厚度增加。关闭北极河流径流也对北冰洋内的环流有影响:由于缺少来自欧亚大陆的北极径流的输入,穿极漂流与东格陵兰流流速减小且盐度增加;关闭北极径流导致近岸海表面高度降低,沿欧亚陆架的北冰洋边界流减弱,白令海入流增强。通过对比关闭北极径流实验与控制实验的温度和盐度剖面,发现关闭北极径流后大西洋层温度降低,各陆架海盐跃层的梯度减小,盐跃层厚度减小。     

Sediment dynamics in the Eurasian Arctic Ocean during the last deglaciation — The clay mineral group smectite perspective

This study focuses on sedimentological investigations of sediment cores recovered during the international Arctic′91, expeditions with the German research ice breaker RV “Polarstern” to the European sector of the Arctic Ocean. Here, we deduce the last glacial/interglacial changes in transport mechanism and sedimentation from the clay mineral group smectite. We choose the smectites as an example of how sediment mineralogy can be linked with particular source regions (the Kara and Laptev seas), distinct transport mechanism (sea ice and surface currents) and sedimentation processes. Smectite contents in Arctic sediments discussed for two time slices, including the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and the last deglaciation (Termination I), reveal the highest variability subsequent to the retreat of the Eurasian ice sheets. Our results show that smectite anomalies in the Eurasian Basin are associated with distinct meltwater pulses and occurred around 13.5–13.0 ¹⁴C ka B.P. Compelling evidence is provided that these anomalies are deduced from sea-ice entrained sediments from the eastern Kara Sea that entered the Arctic Ocean after ice-sheet break-up and eventually flooding of the Kara Sea. We propose that smectite anomalies in sediments of the eastern Arctic Ocean can be utilized to identify deglacial events and to help decipher configurations of the Eurasian ice sheets. The identification of smectite maxima along the modern sea-ice edge in the Eurasian Basin further indicates biologically enhanced sedimentation from melting sea ice allowing the reconstruction of seasonally open water in the region. Hence, considering the poor preservation conditions of primary paleoceanographic proxies in the Arctic Ocean, the clay mineral contents, particularly the smectite group, may be one alternative tool for paleoclimatic reconstruction in the Eurasian Basin.     

General forecast of the evolution of the coastal zone of the Eurasian Arctic seas in the 21st century

Principal regularities of the evolution of the Arctic coasts of Eurasia in the 21st century related to the climate warming and sea level rise are assessed. It is stated that the most significant changes may be expected in the most ice-covered seas of the Arctic Ocean, where the area of the ice cover may significantly decrease while the duration of the ice-free periods will grow. Thermoabrasive coasts will be the most subjected to the changes; the rate of their recession will increase 1.5–2.5 fold. The further development of accumulative coasts in the Arctic seas will proceed against the background of a transgression; meanwhile, in the 21st century, one can expect no catastrophic changes such as washing away of coastal accumulative features.     

Interaction of an anticyclonic eddy with sea ice in the western Arctic Ocean: an eddy-resolving model study

The dramatic decline of summer sea ice extent and thickness has been witnessed in the western Arctic Ocean in recent decades, which hasmotivated scientists to search for possible factors driving the sea ice variability. An eddy-resolving, ice-ocean coupled model covering the entire Arctic Ocean is implemented, with focus on the western Arctic Ocean. Special attention is paid to the summer Alaskan coastal current (ACC), which has a high temperature (up to 5℃ ormore) in the upper layer due to the solar radiation over the open water at the lower latitude. Downstream of the ACC after Barrow Point, a surface-intensified anticyclonic eddy is frequently generated and propagate towards the Canada Basin during the summer season when sea ice has retreated away from the coast. Such an eddy has a warm core, and its source is high-temperature ACC water. A typical warm-core eddy is traced. It is trapped just below summer sea ice melt water and has a thickness about 60 m. Temperature in the eddy core reaches 2-3℃, and most water inside the eddy has a temperature over 1℃. With a definition of the eddy boundary, an eddy heat is calculated, which can melt 1 600 km² of 1mthick sea ice under extreme conditions.     

北极海缆路由工程地质勘察问题探析

跨北极海缆以其铺设成本低、海缆传输距离短、信息传输速率高等优点成为多个国家优先选择的海缆线路。文章简要介绍了环北极国家和我国的北极海缆建设现状。探讨了海冰对工程地质勘察区域的限制、海冰对工程地质调查取样的影响、海雾对工程地质勘察进度的影响和北极地缘政治对工程地质勘察的制约。提出增强调查船舶破冰性能、加速勘察技术革新、提升海冰气象预报能力和深化国际合作等建议,以提升我国北极区域海上综合勘察能力。     

北极冬季季节性海冰双模态特征分析

近年来北极海冰快速变化,北极中央区边缘正由以多年冰为主转为季节性海冰为主。通过对北极冬季季节性海冰的EOF分解发现,2002-2012年期间北极季节性海冰变化的前两模态主要体现为2005年和2007年的季节性海冰距平。其中第二模态主要体现了北极海冰在2005年的一种极端变化,而第一模态不仅体现了北极海冰在2007年的变化,还体现了北极季节性海冰的从负位相到正位相的转变。通过比较发现,在研究时段北极季节性海冰最主要的变化发生在北极太平洋扇区,在2007年,冬季季节性海冰距平发生位相转变,2007-2010年一直维持正位相,北极太平洋扇区冬季季节性海冰保持显著正距平。太平洋扇区表面温度最大异常也发生在2007年,从大气环流来看,2007年之后波弗特海区异常高压有利于夏季太平洋扇区海冰的减少,而西风急流的减弱有利于夏季波弗特海区异常高压的维持,结合夏季海冰速度,顺时针的冰速分布有利于海冰离开太平洋扇区,因而会导致冬季太平洋扇区季节性海冰转为正距平并且从2007年一直维持到2010年。     

Arctic summer sea ice phenology including ponding from 1982 to 2017

Information on the Arctic sea ice climate indicators is crucial to business strategic planning and climate monitoring. Data on the evolvement of the Arctic sea ice and decadal trends of phenology factors during melt season are necessary for climate prediction under global warming. Previous studies on Arctic sea ice phenology did not involve melt ponds that dramatically lower the ice surface albedo and tremendously affect the process of sea ice surface melt. Temporal means and trends of the Arctic sea ice phenology from 1982 to 2017 were examined based on satellite-derived sea ice concentration and albedo measurements. Moreover, the timing of ice ponding and two periods corresponding to it were newly proposed as key stages in the melt season. Therefore, four timings, i.e., date of snow and ice surface melt onset (MO), date of pond onset (PO), date of sea ice opening (DOO), and date of sea ice retreat (DOR); and three durations, i.e., melt pond formation period (MPFP, i.e., MO–PO), melt pond extension period (MPEP, i.e., PO–DOR), and seasonal loss of ice period (SLIP, i.e., DOO–DOR), were used. PO ranged from late April in the peripheral seas to late June in the central Arctic Ocean in Bootstrap results, whereas the pan-Arctic was observed nearly 4 days later in NASA Team results. Significant negative trends were presented in the MPEP in the Hudson Bay, the Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Kara and Barents seas in both results, indicating that the Arctic sea ice undergoes a quick transition from ice to open water, thereby extending the melt season year to year. The high correlation coefficient between MO and PO, MPFP illustrated that MO predominates the process of pond formation.     

白令海及西北冰洋有机质来源与新鲜程度的脂肪酸指示

白令海、西北冰洋等高生产力海域在北冰洋“生物泵”中起到重要作用;海水升温、海冰消退等北极快速变化,将强烈影响该海域“生物泵”的结构与规模,并在沉积物中有机质的来源与新鲜程度上有所体现,可用脂肪酸加以指征。对第五次、第六次中国北极科学考察在以上海域采集的表层沉积物进行脂肪酸含量（以沉积物干重计）及组成分析,结果显示楚科奇海陆架总脂肪酸含量非常高((97.15± 55.31) μg/g),白令海盆最低((15.00±1.30) μg/g),加拿大海盆、楚科奇海陆坡、白令海陆架居中(分别为(88.65 ± 3.52) μg/g,(70.35±11.32) μg/g与(38.28±14.89) μg/g)。海源脂肪酸占总脂肪酸比例最高(86.82%±7.08%),陆源次之(8.45%±6.62%),细菌最低(4.63%±2.24%);硅藻指数(16:1ω9/16:0)在楚科奇海陆架(> 0.82)、白令海陆架边缘(> 0.65)较高,其他区域均较低。脂肪酸结果表明:(1) 该海域沉积有机质主要来自海源,陆源贡献小;在北部、南部楚科奇海陆架、白令海陆架边缘,硅藻生物量占主要优势;细菌脂肪酸比例显著低于温暖海域,指示低温抑制细菌活动。(2) 楚科奇海陆架区硅藻生产力高、细菌活动弱,新鲜有机质沉降效率高,但对未来海水升温、浮游植物群落变化也较为敏感。(3) 加拿大海盆、楚科奇海陆坡的浮游植物群落由绿藻与金藻主导。以上结论说明脂肪酸可指示表层沉积物中有机质的来源与新鲜程度;未来,脂肪酸有望进一步揭示北冰洋“生物泵”对北极快速变化的响应。