Depositional and diagenetic controls on deeply-buried Eocene sublacustrine fan reservoirs in the Dongying Depression,Bohai Bay Basin,China

This paper investigates the reservoir potential of deeply-buried Eocene sublacustrine fan sandstones in the Bohai Bay Basin, China by evaluating the link between depositional lithofacies that controlled primary sediment compositions, and diagenetic processes that involved dissolution, precipitation and transformation of minerals. This petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical study recognizes a complex diagenetic history which reflects both the depositional and burial history of the sandstones. Eogenetic alterations of the sandstones include: 1) mechanical compaction; and 2) partial to extensive non-ferroan carbonate and gypsum cementation. Typical mesogenetic alterations include: (1) dissolution of feldspar, non-ferroan carbonate cements, gypsum and anhydrite; (2) precipitation of quartz, kaolinite and ferroan carbonate cements; (3) transformation of smectite and kaolinite to illite and conversion of gypsum to anhydrite. This study demonstrates that: 1) depositional lithofacies critically influenced diagenesis, which resulted in good reservoir quality of the better-sorted, middle-fan, but poor reservoir quality in the inner- and outer-fan lithofacies; 2) formation of secondary porosity was spatially associated with other mineral reactions that caused precipitation of cements within sandstone reservoirs and did not greatly enhance reservoir quality; and 3) oil emplacement during early mesodiagenesis (temperatures > 70 °C) protected reservoirs from cementation and compaction.     

Extensive carbonate cementation of fluvial sandstones: An integrated outcrop and petrographic analysis from the Upper Cretaceous, Book Cliffs, Utah

Extensive, large-scale pervasive cementation in the form of cement bodies within fluvial strata has rarely been documented although fluvial strata commonly act as important hydrocarbon reservoirs, as well as groundwater aquifers. Here, we present outcrop, petrographic and geochemical data for pervasive ferroan dolomite cement bodies up to 250 m in size from Upper Cretaceous Desert Member and Castlegate Sandstone fluvial strata exposed in the Book Cliffs in Utah. These cement bodies are present with coastal plain fluvial strata within both the Desert and Castlegate lowstand sandstones and are most abundant in the thin, distal fluvial strata. Cement bodies are almost entirely absent in updip, thicker, fluvial strata. Petrographic observations suggest a predominantly early diagenetic timing to the mildly ferroan dolomite, with a component of later burial origin. δ¹³C values for the cement (+4.8 to −5.7‰ V-PDB) suggest a marine-derived source for the earliest phase with a burial organic matter source for later cement. δ¹⁸O data (−6.3 to −11.8‰ V-PDB) suggest precipitation from freshwater dominated fluids. It is proposed here that dolomite was derived from leaching of detrital dolomite under lowstand coals and cementation took place in coastal aquifers experiencing mixed meteoric-marine fluids as a result of base-level fluctuations. This data presented here shows that large cement bodies can be an important component within fluvial sandstones with a potentially significant impact upon both reservoir quality and fluid flow within reservoirs, especially at the marine-non-marine interface.     

Facies controls on the distribution of diagenesis and compaction in fluvial-deltaic deposits

The Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic Åre Formation comprising the deeper reservoir in the Heidrun Field offshore mid-Norway consists of fluvial channel sandstones (FCH), floodplain fines (FF), and sandy and muddy bay-fill sediments (SBF, MBF) deposited in an overall transgressive fluvial to lower delta plain regime. The formation has been investigated to examine possible sedimentary facies controls on the distribution of cementation and compaction based on petrography and SEM/micro probe analyses of core samples related to facies associations and key stratigraphic surfaces. The most significant authigenic minerals are kaolinite, calcite and siderite. Kaolinite and secondary porosity from dissolution of feldspar and biotite are in particular abundant in the fluvial sandstones. The carbonate minerals show complex compositional and micro-structural variation of pure siderite (Sid I), Mg-siderite (Sid II), Fe-dolomite, ankerite and calcite, displaying decreasing Fe from early to late diagenetic carbonate cements. An early diagenetic origin for siderite and kaolinite is inferred from micro-structural relations, whereas pore filling calcite and ankerite formed during later diagenesis. The Fe-dolomite probably related to mixing-zone dolomitization from increasing marine influences, and a regional correlatable calcite cemented layer has been related to a flooding event. Porosity values in non-cemented sandstone samples are generally high in both FCH and SBF facies associations averaging 27%. Differential compaction between sandstone and mudstone has a ratio of up to 1:2 and with lower values for MBF. We emphasize the role of eogenetic siderite cementation in reducing compactability in the fine-grained, coal-bearing sediments most prominent in MBF facies. This has implications for modeling of differential compaction between sandstone and mudstones deposited in fluvial-deltaic environments.     

The role played by carbonate cementation in controlling reservoir quality of the Triassic Skagerrak Formation,Norway

Anomalously high porosities up to 30% at burial depth of >3000 m along with varying amounts and types of carbonate cements occur in the fluvial channel sandstone facies of the Triassic Skagerrak Formation, Central Graben, Norway. However, porosities of the Skagerrak Formation are lower in the Norwegian sector than in the UK sector. In this study, petrographic analysis, core examination, scanning electron microscopy, elemental mapping, carbon and oxygen isotope, fluid inclusion and microgeometry analysis are performed to determine the diagenesis and direct influence on reservoir quality, with particular focus on the role played by carbonate cementation. The sandstones are mainly fine-grained lithic-arkosic to sub-arkosic arenites and display a wide range of intergranular volumes (2.3%–43.7% with an average of 23.6%). Porosity loss is mainly due to compaction (av. 26.6%) with minor contribution from cementation (av. 12.1%). The carbonate cements are patchy in distribution (from trace to 20.7%) and appear as various types e.g. calcretes (i.e. calcareous concreted gravels), poikilitic sparite and sparry ferroan dolomite, and euhedral or/and aggregated ankerite/ferroan dolomite crystals. This study highlights the association of carbonate precipitation with the remobilisation of carbonate from intra-Skagerrak calcretes during early burial stage i.e. <500 m. During deeper burial, compaction is inhibited by carbonate cements, resulting high intergranular volume of up to 32% and 29% for fine- and medium-grained sandstones, respectively. Carbonate cement dissolution probably results from both meteoric water flow with CO₂ during shallow burial, and organic CO₂ and carboxylic acid during deep burial. The maximum intergranular volume enhanced by dissolution of early carbonate cements is calculated to 8% and 5% for fine- and medium-grained sandstones, respectively. Compaction continues to exert influence after dissolution of carbonate cements, which results in a loss of ∼6% intergranular volume for fine- and medium-grained sandstones. Reservoir quality of the Norwegian sector is poorer than that of the UK sector due to a lower coverage of clay mineral coats e.g. chlorite, later and deeper onset of pore fluid overpressure, lower solubility of carbonate compared to halite, and a higher matrix content.     

Flow simulation with reactive transport applied to carbonate rock diagenesis

Significant volumes of the known hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rocks, many of these dolomitized. The spatial distribution of diagenesis on these rocks is one of the main challenges in oil reservoir modeling. Reactive transport models can be a powerful tool to understand the active diagenetic processes and their effects on the quality of these reservoirs. In this study it was used, for the first time, the CMG-GEM simulator to model diagenetic evolution of a carbonate sequence, subjected to compaction-driven and geothermal flow in a simulated period of 200 thousand years. It was simulated carbonate cementation, dolomitization and dissolution, with and without presence of faults. Among the analyzed variables, the volume of circulating fluid was the most important factor. For both mechanisms, flow simulated velocities obtained had magnitudes smaller than 10⁻⁶ m/day. Diagenesis was insignificant for these low speeds at simulated time interval. Only dolomitized facies presented relevant diagenesis in form of calcite dissolution and dolomite precipitation. Simulations with flow rates of 1 m/day revealed a considerable increase in observed diagenesis, especially in carbonate cementation and in porosity enhancement. Diagenesis was more pronounced in more permeable sediments, highlighting the role of fluid flow in diagenetic reactions. Relative dissolution was greatly reduced during simulations performed with absence of dolomite and dolomitization reactions. The presence of faults strongly influences spatial distribution of diagenesis, especially relatively to dissolution. More permeable facies were more dissolved near fault, decreasing with increasing distance. Low permeability facies, as mudstones, are not dissolved, even near fault. Spatial distribution of diagenesis would then be dependent mainly on the quality of original pore structure, of fault presence and mineral composition of rock.     

Reservoir characteristics and their effects on hydrocarbon accumulation in lacustrine turbidites in the Jiyang Super-depression,Bohai Bay Basin,China

A great difference exists between the hydrocarbon charging characteristics of different Tertiary lacustrine turbidites in the Jiyang Super-depression of the Bohai Bay Basin, east China. Based on wireline log data, core observation and thin-section analyses, this study presents detailed reservoir property data and their controlling effects from several case studies and discusses the geological factors that govern the hydrocarbon accumulation in turbidite reservoirs. The lacustrine fluxoturbidite bodies investigated are typically distributed in an area of 0.5–10 km², with a thickness of 5–20 m. The sandstones of the Tertiary turbidites in the Jiyang Super-depression have been strongly altered diagenetically by mechanical compaction, cementation and mineral dissolution. The effect of compaction caused the porosity to decrease drastically with the burial depths, especially during the early diagenesis when the porosity was reduced by over 15%. The effect of cementation and mineral dissolution during the late-stage diagenesis is dominated by carbonate cementation in sandstones. High carbonate cement content is usually associated with low porosity and permeability. Carbonate dissolution (secondary porosity zone) and primary calcite dissolution is believed to be related to thermal maturation of organic matter and clay mineral reactions in the surrounding shales and mudstone. Two stages of carbonate cementation were identified: the precipitation from pore-water during sedimentation and secondary precipitation in sandstones from the organic acid-dissolved carbonate minerals from source rocks. Petrophysical properties have controlled hydrocarbon accumulation in turbidite sandstones: high porosity and permeability sandstones have high oil saturation and are excellent producing reservoirs. It is also noticed that interstitial matter content affects the oil-bearing property to some degree. There are three essential elements for high oil-bearing turbidite reservoirs: excellent pore types, low carbonate cement (<5%) and good petrophysical properties with average porosity >15% and average permeability >10 mD.     

苏北盐城天然气储层成岩作用研究

盐城凹陷天然气储层为成分成熟度很低的砂砾岩、砾状砂岩、砂岩和少量粉砂岩,砂岩类型主要为长石岩屑砂岩和少量岩屑长石砂岩。成岩矿物主要类型有粘土矿物、石英、钠长石、碳酸盐、硬石膏和石膏等。储层以次生孔隙发育为特点,以粒间孔隙和骨架颗粒溶孔最为发育,溶解作用发育程度与泥质岩在成岩过程中粘土矿物和有机质的演化关系极其密切。盐城天然气进入储层发生在始新世———新近纪,主要成藏期发生在4.5~10Ma。天然气储层成岩演化阶段处于晚成岩A亚期。储层性质明显地受到沉积相和成岩作用的影响。沉积物粒度较粗、厚度较大的河道砂的储集物性明显优于各种粒度较细、厚度较薄的席状砂体。     

Diagenetic alterations related to marine transgression and regression in fluvial and shallow marine sandstones of the Triassic Buntsandstein and Keuper sequence,the Paris Basin,France

The distribution of diagenetic alterations in Triassic fluvio-deltaic, quartzarenitic to sublitharenitic, lowstand systems tract (LST) sandstones of the Grès á Voltzia Formation, anastomosing fluvial, quartzarenitic transgressive systems tract (TST) sandstones of the Grès á Roseaux Formation, and shallow marine, quartzarenitic to sublitharenitic, TST sandstones of the Grès Coquiller Formation, the Paris Basin (France), can be linked to transgression and regression events, and thus to the sequence stratigraphic context. Near-surface eogenetic alterations, which display a fairly systematic link to the depositional facies and sequence stratigraphic framework, include: (i) cementation by meteoric water calcite (δ¹⁸O=−8.9‰ and δ¹³C=−9.1‰) in the fluvio-deltaic, LST sandstones, (ii) cementation by mixed marine–meteoric calcite (δ¹⁸O=−5.3‰ to −2.6‰ and δ¹³C=−3.9‰ to −1.3‰) and dolomite (δ¹⁸O=−4.6‰ to −2.6‰ and δ¹³C=−2.9‰ to −2.3‰) in the foreshore, TST sandstones and below parasequence boundaries (PB), and transgressive surface (TS), and in the shoreface, TST sandstones below maximum flooding surfaces (MFS), being facilitated by the presence of carbonate bioclasts, (iii) dissolution of detrital silicates and precipitation of K-feldspar overgrowths and kaolinite, particularly in the fluvio-deltaic, LST sandstones owing to effective meteoric water circulation, and (vi) formation of autochthonous glauconite, which is increases in abundance towards the top of the fluvio-deltaic, LST sandstones, and along TS, and in the shoreface, TST sandstones, by alteration of micas owing to the flux of seawaters into the sandstones during transgression, whereas parautochthonous glauconite is restricted to the TS sandstones owing to marine reworking. Mesogenetic alterations, which include cementation by quartz overgrowths and illite, display fairly systematic link to fluvio-deltaic, LST sandstones. This study has revealed that linking of diagenesis to transgression and regression events enables a better understanding of the parameters that control the spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations in sandstones and of their impact on reservoir quality evolution.     

Diagenetic history of tight sandstones and gas entrapment in the Yulin Gas Field in the central area of the Ordos Basin,China

The Ordos Basin is a large cratonic basin with an area of 250,000 km² in central China. Upper Paleozoic coals and shales serve as gas source rocks with peak generation and migration at the end of the early Cretaceous. Recent exploration has verified the huge gas potential in the “basin-centered gas accumulation system” (BCGAS). However, the mechanism for the gas accumulation is controversial. With an integrated approach of thin-section petrography, ultra-violet fluorescence microscopy, fluid inclusion microthermometry, Raman microspectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffractometry, we identified diagenetic trapping and evaluated the diagenetic history of sandstone reservoirs in the Yulin Gas Field in the central area, where structural, stratigraphic and/or sedimentary lithologic traps have not been found. It was revealed that three phases of diagenesis and hydrocarbon charging occurred, respectively, in the late Triassic, late Jurassic and at the end of the early Cretaceous. In the first two phases, acidic water entered the reservoir and caused dissolution and cementation, resulting in porosity increase. However, further subsidence and diagenesis, including compaction and cementation, markedly reduced the pore space. At the end of the early Cretaceous, the bulk of the gas migrated into the tight reservoirs, and the BCGAS trap was formed. In the updip portion of this system, cementation continued to occur due to low gas saturation and has provided effective seals to retain gas for a longer period of time than water block in the BCGAS. The mechanism for the gas entrapment was changed from water block by capillary pressure in the BCGAS to diagenetic sealing. The diagenetic seals in the updip portion of the sand body were formed after gas charging, which indicates that there is a large hydrocarbon exploration potential at the basin-centered area.     

Petrological and geochemical constraints on diagenesis and deep burial dissolution of the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs in the Tazhong area,Tarim Basin,NW China

Deeply buried (4500–7000 m) Ordovician carbonate reservoirs in the Tazhong area, Tarim Basin, NW China show obvious heterogeneity with porosity from null in limestones and sweet dolostones to 27.8% in sour dolostones, from which economically important oils, sour gas and condensates are currently being produced. Petrographic features, C, O, Sr isotopes were determined, and fluid inclusions were analyzed on diagenetic calcite, dolomite and barite from Ordovician reservoirs to understand controls on the porosity distribution. Ordovician carbonate reservoirs in the Tazhong area are controlled mainly by initial sedimentary environments and eo-genetic and near-surface diagenetic processes. However, vugs and pores generated from eogenetic and telogenetic meteoric dissolution were observed to have partially been destroyed due to subsequent compaction, filling and cementation. In some locations or wells (especially ZG5-ZG7 Oilfield nearby ZG5 Fault), burial diagenesis (e.g. thermochemical sulfate reduction, TSR) probably played an important role in quality improvement towards high-quality reservoirs. C2 calcite and dolomite cements and barite have fluid inclusions homogenization temperatures (Ths) from 86 to 113 °C, from 96 to 128 °C and from 128 to 151 °C, respectively. We observed petrographically corroded edges of these high-temperature minerals with oil inclusions, indicating the dissolution must have occurred under deep-burial conditions. The occurrence of TSR within Ordovician carbonate reservoirs is supported by C3 calcite replacement of barite, and the association of sulfur species including pyrite, anhydrite or barite and elemental sulfur with hydrocarbon and ¹²C-rich (as low as −7.2‰ V-PDB) C3 calcite with elevated Ths (135–153 °C). The TSR may have induced burial dissolution of dolomite and thus probably improved porosity of the sour dolostones reservoirs at least in some locations. In contrast, no significant burial dissolution occurred in limestone reservoirs and non-TSR dolostone reservoirs. The deeply buried sour dolostone reservoirs may therefore be potential exploration targets in Tarim Basin or elsewhere in the world.     

Reservoir characterization of Scollard-age fluvial sandstones,Alberta foredeep

A detailed laboratory study of 53 sandstone samples from 23 outcrops and 156 conventional core samples from the Maastrichtian-Paleocene Scollard-age fluvial strata in the Western Canada foredeep was undertaken to investigate the reservoir characteristics and to determine the effect of diagenesis on reservoir quality. The sandstones are predominantly litharenites and sublitharenites, which accumulated in a variety of fluvial environments. The porosity of the sandstones is both syn-depositional and diagenetic in origin. Laboratory analyses indicate that porosity in sandstones from outcrop samples with less than 5% calcite cement averages 14%, with a mean permeability of 16 mD. In contrast, sandstones with greater than 5% calcite cement average 7.9% porosity, with a mean permeability of 6.17 mD. The core porosity averages 17% with 41 mD permeability. Cementation coupled with compaction had an important effect in the destruction of porosity after sedimentation and burial. The reservoir quality of sandstones is also severely reduced where the pore-lining clays are abundant (>15%). The potential of a sandstone to serve as a reservoir for producible hydrocarbons is strongly related to the sandstone’s diagenetic history. Three diagenetic stages are identified: eodiagenesis before effective burial, mesodiagenesis during burial, and telodiagenesis during exposure after burial. Eodiagenesis resulted in mechanical compaction, calcite cementation, kaolinite and smectite formation, and dissolution of chemically unstable grains. Mesodiagenesis resulted in chemical compaction, precipitation of calcite cement, quartz overgrowths, and the formation of authigenic clays such as chlorite, dickite, and illite. Finally, telodiagenesis seems to have had less effect on reservoir properties, even though it resulted in the precipitation of some kaolinite and the partial dissolution of feldspar.     

Diagenetic evolution of the upper Cretaceous limestone and sandstone exhumed reservoirs in the western Basque–Cantabrian Basin,North Spain

The Basque–Cantabrian Basin (NE Spain) has been considered one of the most interesting areas for hydrocarbon exploration in the Iberian Peninsula since the 60th to 70th of last century. This basin is characterized by the presence of numerous outcrops of tar sands closely associated with fractures and Triassic diapirs. The aims of this work is to establish the diagenetic evolution of the Upper Cretaceous reservoir rocks with special emphasis in the emplacement of oil and their impact on reservoir quality. The studied rocks are constituted of carbonates and sandstones that contain massive quantities of bitumen filling vugs and fractures.Petrographic results indicate that the carbonate rocks from Maestu outcrops are bioclastic grainstones and wackestones, whereas the tar sandstones from Atauri and Loza outcrops are dominated by quartzarenites and subordinated subarkoses. The paragenetic sequence of the main diagenetic phases and processes include, pyrite, bladed and drusy calcite cement, calcite overgrowths, silicification of bioclasts and microcrystalline rhombic dolomite cement, and first stage of oil emplacement, blocky calcite cement, coarse crystalline calcite cement, calcitized dolomite, calcite veins, saddle dolomite and stylolites filled by the second phase of oil entrance. Together with the above mentioned diagenetic alterations, the arenites are affected by early kaolinitization of feldspars and the scarce formation of clay rim and epimatrix of illite. All sandstones and dolomitized carbonate rocks show high intercrystalline and intergranular porosity which is full by biodegraded hydrocarbons (solid bitumen). The biodegradation affects alkanes, isoprenoids and partially hopanes and steranes saturated hydrocarbons. Aromatics hydrocarbons, like naphthalenes, phenanthrenes, dibenzothiophenes and triaromatics are also affected by biodegradation. Results indicate that the first HC emplacement corresponds to early stage of calcite and dolomite cementation, and the second and more important emplacement is related to fracturation processes resulting in the formation of excellent reservoirs.     

Microbial-mediated pre-salt carbonate deposition during the Messinian salinity crisis (Calcare di Base fm., Southern Italy)

A multi-scale analysis of sedimentary carbonate facies and post-sedimentary diagenetic features of the Calcare di Base Formation, the precursor to evaporites in Upper Messinian successions of Northern Calabria and Central Sicily, has revealed their microbial bio-mediated origin. Massive to laminated microbial boundstones represent the most common sedimentary facies forming flat to low relief cm to m scale stromatolitic and thrombolitic bodies. The fabric of the micrite varies from peloidal to aphanitic, and almost always preserves filamentous bacteria which characterized the original microbial mat. The mat was dominated by sulphur-oxidizing bacteria belonging to the Thiotrichaceae, but there is evidence for a more complex community with sulphate- and/or nitrate-reducing bacteria, all being responsible for the mediation of the carbonate precipitation. Microbial boundstones are rich in pseudomorphs of Ca-sulphate and halite, which formed during the deposition of the microbial carbonate. Layers of primary gypsum are interbedded locally with carbonates suggesting the presence of restricted marine conditions. The stable O and C isotopic composition of the carbonates, that vary from dolomite to aragonite and calcite, suggests a complex interplay between arid to humid climatic changes, expressed cyclic interbedding of the carbonate with marl-marlstone. Later diagenetic events mainly consist of phreatic meteoric recrystallization and cementation. Although considered as diachronous, the microbial carbonates can be mapped out over a distance of more than 500 km across southern Italy; this indicates near-constant environmental conditions upon the central Mediterranean shelf at the beginning of the salinity crisis. Deposition of the extensive subaqueous microbial deposit that largely comprises the Calcare di Base is envisaged to have taken place across a shallow to moderate depth platform with local slopes into deeper water areas, where some resedimentation occurred.     

Pore fluid evolution in the Kimmeridge Clay Formation of the UK Outer Moray Firth: implications for sandstone diagenesis

Carbonate concretions in Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay Formation from three overpressured wells provide a detailed record of pore fluid evolution in the Outer Moray Firth/Northern Central Graben. The concretions contain multiple generations of septarian cements, with morphologies ranging from simple cracks to complex fractures. Discrepancy exists between diagenetic studies, which indicate these concretions formed during the initial 1–1.5 km of burial and palaeotemperature predictions, based on a thermal history calibrated from the vitrinite reflectance kinetic model, which indicate formation at much greater depths of between 1.5 and 2.5 km. Modelling undertaken for this study indicate that the concretions formed during the initial stages of burial under high heat flows, fitting the early diagenetic model for their formation. These conclusions have important implications for understanding the cementation of adjacent sandstone reservoirs where cement sequences have similar mineralogy and isotopic compositions, with precipitation in the same temperature range from mudrock derived pore fluids. Early cementation of these sandstones is implied by analogy with the mudrock concretions.     

Diagenesis and origin of calcite cement in the Flemish Pass Basin sandstone reservoir (Upper Jurassic): Implications for porosity development

The Flemish Pass Basin is a deep-water basin located offshore on the continental passive margin of the Grand Banks, eastern Newfoundland, which is currently a hydrocarbon exploration target. The current study investigates the petrographic characteristics and origin of carbonate cements in the Ti-3 Member, a primary clastic reservoir interval of the Bodhrán Formation (Upper Jurassic) in the Flemish Pass Basin.The Ti-3 sandstones with average Q_86.0F_3.1R_10.9 contain various diagenetic minerals, including calcite, pyrite, quartz overgrowth, dolomite and siderite. Based on the volume of calcite cement, the investigated sandstones can be classified into (1) calcite-cemented intervals (>20% calcite), and (2) poorly calcite-cemented intervals (porous). Petrographic analysis shows that the dominant cement is intergranular poikilotopic (300–500 μm) calcite, which stared to form extensively at early diagenesis. The precipitation of calcite occured after feldspar leaching and was followed by corrosion of quartz grains. Intergranular calcite cement hosts all-liquid inclusions mainly in the crystal core, but rare primary two-phase (liquid and vapor) fluid inclusions in the rims ((with mean homogenization temperature (T_h) of 70.2 ± 4.9 °C and salinity estimates of 8.8 ± 1.2 eq. wt.% NaCl). The mean δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C isotopic compositions of the intergranular calcite are −8.3 ± 1.2‰, VPDB and −3.0 ± 1.3‰, VPDB, respectively; whereas, fracture-filling calcite has more depleted δ¹⁸O but similar δ¹³C values. The shale normalized rare earth element (REE_SN) patterns of calcite are generally parallel and exhibit slightly negative Ce anomalies and positive Eu anomalies. Fluid-inclusion gas ratios (CO₂/CH₄ and N₂/Ar) of calcite cement further confirms that diagenetic fluids originated from modified seawater. Combined evidence from petrographic, microthermometric and geochemical analyses suggest that (1) the intergranular calcite cement precipitated from diagenetic fluids of mixed marine and meteoric (riverine) waters in suboxic conditions; (2)the cement was sourced from the oxidation of organic matters and the dissolution of biogenic marine carbonates within sandstone beds or adjacent silty mudstones; and (3) the late phases of the intergranular and fracture-filling calcite cements were deposited from hot circulated basinal fluids.Calcite cementation acts as a main controlling factor on the reservoir quality in the Flemish Pass reservoir sandstones. Over 75% of initial porosity was lost due to the early calcite cementation. The development of secondary porosity (mostly enlarged, moldic pores) and throats by later calcite dissolution due to maturation of organic matters (e.g., hydrocarbon and coals), was the key process in improving the reservoir quality.     

Controls on reservoir heterogeneity of tight sand oil reservoirs in Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation in Longdong Area,southwest Ordos Basin,China: Implications for reservoir quality prediction and oil accumulation

Compared to conventional reservoirs, pore structure and diagenetic alterations of unconventional tight sand oil reservoirs are highly heterogeneous. The Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation is a major tight-oil-bearing formation in the Ordos Basin, providing an opportunity to study the factors that control reservoir heterogeneity and the heterogeneity of oil accumulation in tight oil sandstones.The Chang 8 tight oil sandstone in the study area is comprised of fine-to medium-grained, moderately to well-sorted lithic arkose and feldspathic litharenite. The reservoir quality is extremely heterogeneous due to large heterogeneities in the depositional facies, pore structures and diagenetic alterations. Small throat size is believed to be responsible for the ultra-low permeability in tight oil reservoirs. Most reservoirs with good reservoir quality, larger pore-throat size, lower pore-throat radius ratio and well pore connectivity were deposited in high-energy environments, such as distributary channels and mouth bars. For a given depositional facies, reservoir quality varies with the bedding structures. Massive- or parallel-bedded sandstones are more favorable for the development of porosity and permeability sweet zones for oil charging and accumulation than cross-bedded sandstones.Authigenic chlorite rim cementation and dissolution of unstable detrital grains are two major diagenetic processes that preserve porosity and permeability sweet zones in oil-bearing intervals. Nevertheless, chlorite rims cannot effectively preserve porosity-permeability when the chlorite content is greater than a threshold value of 7%, and compaction played a minor role in porosity destruction in the situation. Intensive cementation of pore-lining chlorites significantly reduces reservoir permeability by obstructing the pore-throats and reducing their connectivity. Stratigraphically, sandstones within 1 m from adjacent sandstone-mudstone contacts are usually tightly cemented (carbonate cement > 10%) with low porosity and permeability (lower than 10% and 0.1 mD, respectively). The carbonate cement most likely originates from external sources, probably derived from the surrounding mudstone. Most late carbonate cements filled the previously dissolved intra-feldspar pores and the residual intergranular pores, and finally formed the tight reservoirs.The petrophysical properties significantly control the fluid flow capability and the oil charging/accumulation capability of the Chang 8 tight sandstones. Oil layers usually have oil saturation greater than 40%. A pore-throat radius of less than 0.4 μm is not effective for producible oil to flow, and the cut off of porosity and permeability for the net pay are 7% and 0.1 mD, respectively.     

The role of diagenesis and depositional facies on pore system evolution in a Triassic outcrop analogue (SE Spain)

This study aims at unravelling the diagenetic history and its effect on the pore system evolution of the Triassic redbeds exposed in SE Spain (TIBEM¹), an outcrop analogue of the TAGI (Trias Argilo-Gréseux Inférieur) reservoir (Berkine-Ghadames Basin, Algeria). Similar climatic, base level and tectonic conditions of aforementioned alluvial formations developed analogue fluvial facies stacking patterns. Furthermore, interplay of similar detrital composition and depositional facies in both formations resulted in analogue early diagenetic features. Petrographic observations indicate lithic subarkosic (floodplain facies) and subarkosic (braidplain facies) compositions which are considered suitable frameworks for potential reservoir rocks. Primary porosity is mainly reduced during early diagenesis through moderate mechanical compaction and formation of K-feldspar overgrowth, gypsum, dolomite and phyllosilicate cements. Early mesodiagenesis is testified by low chemical compaction and quartz cementation. Telodiagenetic calcite filling fractures and K-feldspar dissolution determined the final configuration of analysed sandstones. Mercury injection-capillary pressure technique reveals overbank deposits in the floodplain as the least suitable potential reservoirs because of their lowest open porosity (OP < 16%), permeability (k < 5 mD) and small dimensions. On the other hand, braidplain deposits show the highest values of such properties (OP up to 31.6% and k > 95 mD) and greater thickness and lateral continuity, so being considered the best potential reservoir. The accurate estimation of TIBEM microscale attributes can provide important input for appraisal and enhanced oil recovery performance in TAGI and in others reservoirs consisting on similar fluvial sandy facies.     

Linking early diagenesis and sedimentary facies to sequence stratigraphy on a prograding oolitic wedge: The Bathonian of western France (Aquitaine Basin)

To improve the understanding of the distribution of reservoir properties along carbonate platform margins, the connection between facies, sequence stratigraphy, and early diagenesis of discontinuities along the Bathonian prograding oolitic wedge of the northeastern Aquitaine platform was investigated. Eight facies are distributed along a 50 km-outcropping transect in (1) toe-of-slope, (2) infralittoral prograding oolitic wedge, (3) platform margin (shoal), (4) open marine platform interior, (5) foreshore, and (6) terrestrial settings. The transition from shallow platform to toe-of-slope facies is marked in the field by clinoforms hundred of meters long. Carbonate production was confined to the shallow platform but carbonates were exported basinward toward the breakpoint where they cascaded down a 20–25° slope. Ooid to intraclast grainstones to rudstones pass into alternating marl-limestone deposits at an estimated paleodepth of 40–75 m. Three sea-level falls of about 10 m caused the formation of discontinuities corresponding to sequence boundaries. Along these discontinuities, erosional marine hardgrounds formed in a high-hydrodynamic environment at a water depth of less than 10 m, displaying isopachous fibrous cements and meniscus-type cements. The cements pass landward into meniscus and microstalactitic forms along the same discontinuities, which are characteristic of subaerial exposure. During the deposition of transgressive systems tracts, carbonate accumulation remained located mostly on the shallow platform. Energy level increased and carbonates were exported during the deposition of highstand systems tracts forming the infralittoral prograding oolitic wedge. During the deposition of lowstand systems tracts, carbonate production fell to near zero and intraclast strata, derived from the erosion of hardgrounds on the shallow platform, prograded basinward. Early diagenetic cements are related exclusively to discontinuities that are not found within the prograding wedge because of the continuous high sedimentation rate under lower hydrodynamic conditions. This absence of early cementation within the infralittoral prograding oolitic wedge was conducive to porosity conservation, making such features good targets for carbonate reservoir exploration. This study proposes a novel sequence stratigraphy model for oolitic platform wedges, including facies and early diagenesis features.     

Deformation bands evolving from dilation to cementation bands in a hydrocarbon reservoir (Vienna Basin,Austria)

In this study we analyzed five core samples from a hydrocarbon reservoir, the Matzen Field in the Vienna Basin (Austria). Deformation bands occur as single bands or as strands of several bands. In contrast to most published examples of deformation bands in terrigeneous sandstones, the reduction of porosity is predominantly caused by the precipitation of Fe-rich dolomite cement within the bands, and only subordinately by cataclasis of detrital grains. The chemical composition of this dolomite cement (10–12 wt% FeO) differs from detrital dolomite grains in the host rock (<2 wt% FeO). This observation in combination with stable isotope data suggests that the cement is not derived from the detrital grains, but precipitated from a fluid from an external, non-meteoric source. After an initial increase of porosity by dilation, disaggregation and fragmentation of detrital grains, a Fe-rich carbonate fluid crystallized within the bands, thereby reducing the porosity relative to the host sediment. The retention of pyrite cement by these cementation bands as well as the different degree of oil staining on either side of the bands demonstrate that these cementation bands act as effective barriers to the migration of fluids and should be considered in reservoir models.     

Structural imaging of Mesozoic sediments of Kachchh,India, and their hydrocarbon prospects

Travel-time modelling of first and second arrivals has been used to produce P-wave velocity models of the shallow sub-surface structure of Kachchh, India, using new wide-angle reflection/refraction profiles. Results obtained from the 2-D tomographic modelling have also been corroborated with magnetotelluric and borehole data within the proximity of these profiles. Based on multiple geophysical data, a composite sub-surface model is presented in this article. The prominent features of the model include the presence of more than 3 km thick Mesozoic sediments residing above the Precambrian basement. Its correlation with available lithological knowledge shows that the Mesozoic rocks have been deposited from early Triassic to late Cretaceous until the eruption of the Deccan Flood basalts at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. The new results suggest that the Mesozoic rocks of Kachchh can be sub-divided in two major parts which correspond to late and early Mesozoic deposits respectively. The sub-surface models successfully demarcate the regional variations in the basaltic layer across the region and show maximum thickness of 1.2 km. The modelling results also exhibit that the Precambrian basement in this region varies between 4 and 6 km depth. The new data provide a much clearer picture than was hitherto available of the entire sedimentary succession in the basins that underlie the Kachchh region. They show a significant variability in thickness of the various sedimentary layers, and in particular illustrate a marked topographic irregularity at the base of the sedimentary succession.