Triaxial behaviour of a cemented gravely sand, Tehran alluvium

Cemented coarse-grained alluvium is present in a vast area of Tehran city, Iran including its suburbs. This deposit consists of gravely sand to sandy gravel with some cobbles and is dominantly cemented by carbonaceous materials. In order to understand the mechanical behaviour of this soil, a series of triaxial compression tests were performed on uncemented, artificially cemented and destructured samples. Hydrated lime was used as the cementation agent for sample preparation to model the Tehran deposit. The tests were performed on cemented samples after an appropriate time for curing. The tests on cemented samples show that a shear zone appears as the shear stress approaches the peak shear strength. During shearing these samples undergo dilation at confining stress lower than 1000kPa. However, the uncemented and destructured samples show contraction during shearing. Peak shear strength is followed by strain softening for all cemented samples. The shear strength increases with increasing cement content but the influence of the cementation decreases as the confining stress increases. With increasing cementation the stress-strain behaviour of samples tend towards the behaviour expected of high-density soils. Test results indicate that the failure envelope for cemented samples is curved and not linear.     

饱和砂土液化研究现状及展望

通过多年的研究,人们对饱和砂土液化有了很深的认识。在Seed简化法,剪切波速法和标准贯入试验等判别的方法的研究方面也取得了很多的成果。本文主要介绍了我国广泛应用的标准贯入试验的方法,以及应用数值方法如何更好的判断场地的抗液化性。提出应用室内的微型贯入试验来判断饱和砂土液化的展望。     

隐伏断层在强震砂土液化中的作用——以2008年汶川Mw 7.9地震为例

2008年汶川Mw7.9地震的强地面震动在龙门山前地区造成大量的砂土液化、喷砂冒水等地震灾害现象。震后野外调查发现,砂土液化点主要分布于地下水位只有几米深的山前河流的低阶地处,以大面积砾性土液化为特征,约58%的液化点位于距北川断层20~35km的范围内。对喷水高度及喷水过程进行了详细记录,喷水高度与峰值加速度并没有明显的相关性,喷水高度异常点(2m)集中于山前断裂系统近地表投影处。汶川地震中喷水高度异常、砾性土液化的位置与山前断裂系统的吻合性说明,沉积盆地内的地质构造可能在砂土液化强度和与震动相关的地震灾害方面起到促进作用,所以在类似的地质和水文环境中,除主震的断层错动外,应考虑地质构造在地震危险性评估和建筑物抗震设计中的重要作用。     

Analysis of liquefaction susceptibility of nearly saturated sands

A new constitutive formulation for simulating the behaviour of nearly saturated sands under seismic loads is presented. The formulation is based on combining the Henry's law for dissolution of gas in water, the ideal or perfect gas law and the law of conservation of mass. The effects of transient air dissolution in water on the compressibility of partially saturated soils are also taken into account. The model was calibrated based on numerical simulations of isotropically consolidated cyclic triaxial tests conducted on partially saturated samples of Toyoura sand. A multi‐yield plasticity soil constitutive model implemented in the finite element code DYNAFLOW was used for these numerical simulations. It is shown that the formulation proposed here is able to reasonably predict the soil cyclic undrained behaviour at various degrees of saturation (95% and higher). Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

饱和层状砂土液化特性的动三轴试验研究

利用GDS动三轴试验系统采用等幅循环应变加载方式对含有不同厚度粉土的饱和层状砂土进行了液化强度试验。分析了均匀砂和含有不同粉粒层厚度的层状砂土在循环荷载作用下的变形和力学特性。试验分析表明：由于含粉粒夹层的层状土特殊的土体结构,其孔隙水压力发展规律与一般的无黏性砂土不同;饱和层状砂土的抗液化强度并不是随着粉粒层厚度的增加而单调增加的,而是存在一个临界点;液化临界剪应变的大小与液化判别标准和循环次数有很大关系。试验结果表明,粉粒夹层对层状砂土的液化特性有很大的影响,且更能模拟自然环境条件下的层状砂土地基液化特性。     

辽西地区风积砂土振动液化特性的试验研究

本文对辽西地区风积砂土地震液化特性进行了实验研究,对围压、固结比、密度和细粒含量进行了分析,得出了它们对抗液化强度的影响规律,同时分析了不同细粒含量和干密度对砂土振动孔压发展模式的影响规律.在偏压固结情况下,振动孔压的发展趋势可以用双曲线对其进行模拟;在均压固结条件下,振动孔压的发展趋势和H.B.Seed、张建民等人研究的振动孔压发展趋势的曲线形态相一致.通过实验分析表明细粒含量、密度等都会对孔压的增长规律有一定影响.     

Modeling cyclic shearing of sands in the semifluidized state

Liquefaction is associated with the loss of mean effective stress and increase of the pore water pressure in saturated granular materials due to their contractive tendency under cyclic shear loading. The loss of mean effective stress is linked to loss of grain contacts, bringing the granular material to a “semifluidized state” and leading to development and accumulation of large cyclic shear strains. Constitutive modeling of the cyclic stress-strain response in earthquake-induced liquefaction and post-liquefaction is complex and yet very important for stress-deformation and performance-based analysis of sand deposits. A new state internal variable named strain liquefaction factor is introduced that evolves at low mean effective stresses, and its constitutive role is to reduce the plastic shear stiffness and dilatancy while maintaining the same plastic volumetric strain rate in the semifluidized state. This new constitutive ingredient is added to an existing critical state compatible, bounding surface plasticity reference model, that is well established for constitutive modeling of cyclic response of sands in the pre-liquefaction state. The roles of the key components of the proposed formulation are examined in a series of sensitivity analyses. Their combined effects in improving the performance of the reference model are examined by simulating undrained cyclic simple shear tests on Ottawa sand, with focus on reproducing the increasing shear strain amplitude as well as its saturation in the post-liquefaction response.     

The prediction of equivalent granular steady state line of loose sand with fines

Void ratio has been used as a state variable for predicting the liquefaction behaviour of soils under the critical state, sometimes also referred to as the steady state, framework. Recent publications show that void ratio may not be a good parameter for characterising sand with fines because the steady state line (or curve) in the e-log(p′) space moves downward with increase in fines content until it reaches a threshold value referred to as the threshold fines content (TFC). Recently, an alternative state variable, referred to as the equivalent granular void ratio, has been proposed to resolve this problem. To calculate this alternative state variable, an additional parameter ‘b’ is needed. This parameter ‘b’ represents the fraction of fines that actively participate in the force structure of the solid skeleton. However, predicting the ‘b’ value is problematic. This paper examines the factors affecting the ‘b’ value based on published work on binary packing. This leads to a simple semi-empirical equation for predicting the ‘b’ value based on fines size and fines content. The proposed equations were evaluated with published data sets. Then, the concept of an equivalent granular steady state line is proposed. This concept was used to predict the location of SSLs for sand with different fines content from either the SSL of clean sand or the SSL of sand with a given fines content. The predictions agree well with experimental results.     

砂土液化判别方法可靠性评价

在进行液化评价简化法与规范液化判别方法对比基础上，利用液化概率的对数回归方程，讨论了规范液化判别方法的可靠性。研究结果表明，我国规范液化判别方法其液化概率变动较大，对于烈度 Ⅶ 度，规范法的液化概率在0.17～0.42间，小于简化法概率0.36～0.43，偏保守。对于烈度 Ⅷ 度和 Ⅸ 度近地表场地，规范法的液化概率高达0.65～0.70，远远高于简化法的液化概率，安全裕度不够。对于含粘粒土质液化评价，规范方法的液化概率总体上都较简化法高，特别是烈度Ⅷ度高粘粒含量其液化概率为0.9。     

南京砂强度特征与静态液化现象分析

在松散、中密和密实状态下,以南京粉细砂三轴固结不排水试验结果为基础,进行了强度、变形与静态液化特征的分析。松散南京砂强度特性表现出典型的应变软化,当轴向变形小于1 %时强度达到最大值,而后急剧降低;在50,100 kPa围压时发生了静态液化。但随着固结压力的增大,静态液化消失。与南京砂具有相同土骨架的松散纯净砂却在低围压下未出现静态液化,其形成机制是：粉粒的存在未使土体孔隙比发生较大变化,却引起更大的体缩性;中密和密实南京粉细砂表现出加工硬化的强度特征,临界应力状态线倾角高达55°,具有较高的抗静态液化能力。     

饱和砂土液化特性的可视化试验研究

针对目前散粒体液化细观机制研究的局限性,对C.K.C型动态三轴仪进行改进,研制了可用于研究散粒体细观组构特征的动三轴可视化试验系统。利用该系统对循环荷载作用下标准砂的颗粒运动规律及细观组构特征进行初步探讨,从颗粒的运动规律、定向性、配位数和孔隙率等细观角度分析了循环荷载作用下饱和砂土发生液化的细观机制,认为液化的发生是土体在循环荷载作用下颗粒不断运动、重新排列的结果,指出颗粒长轴方向、配位数和孔隙率等细观组构参量是反映循环荷载作用下饱和砂土液化宏观响应的重要参量     

Predicting the initiation of static liquefaction of cross‐anisotropic sands under multiaxial stress conditions

Experimental evidence has shown that the liquefaction instability of sands can be affected by its material density, stress state, and inherent anisotropy. In order to predict the initiation of the static liquefaction of inherent cross‐anisotropic sands under multidimensional stress conditions, a rational constitutive model is needed. An elastoplasticity model able to capture the influences of intermediate principal stress ratio (b  = (σ ₂ ? σ ₃)/(σ ₁ ? σ ₃)) and loading direction on stress–strain relationships and volumetric properties was proposed. The yield function was formulated to be controlled by Lode angle, loading direction, and material state; the stress–dilatancy was a material state‐dependent function. After using the existing drained hollow cylinder tests to validate the proposed model, this model was used to simulate the existing undrained hollow cylinder tests. During this simulation, the second‐order work criterion was used to determine the initiation of static liquefaction. The results showed that an increase in both the intermediate principal stress ratio and the loading angle induces a decrease in the second‐order work. Static liquefaction is initiated more easily at a stress state with a large intermediate principal stress ratio and a large loading angle, and the mobilized friction angle at the instability points decreases with the intermediate principal stress ratio and the loading angle. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A model for dilatation, densification, and static liquefaction of loose sands

Utilizing basic balance laws of saturated granular media, a theoretical model for describing the phenomena of dilatation and densification of dry sand, as well as the increase of pore water pressure of saturated sand during shear loading, is developed. An expression for the free-energy function of loose sands is postulated, and the problem of static shearing of a sand sample is analyzed. Predictions of the model for pore water pressure are compared with those obtained experimentally for dry pluviated and moist vibrated samples of fine Ottawa sand and solid-glass beads and discussed.     

A possible continuum theory for densification and liquefaction of saturated sand

A previously developed continuum theory of granular media is applied to the problems of densification and liquefaction of saturated sand. An expression for the free energy of saturated sand is developed. The process of densification of sand subjected to cyclic shear stress is studied and several expressions for an increase of the solid volume fraction are obtained and discussed. The problem of the initial liquefaction of saturated sand samples under cyclic shear stress is then considered and several criteria relating the shear stress amplitude, over-burden pressure, time to liquefaction, and physical properties of the sand sample are established. Some semiempirical relations for field applications are also presented.     

基于判别分析法的地震砂土液化预测研究

将距离判别分析方法应用于砂土液化的预测问题中,建立了砂土液化预测的距离判别模型。选用震级、研究深度、震中距、标贯击数、地下水位及地震持续时间等6项指标作为判别因子,以大量的工程实例数据作为学习样本进行训练,建立了线性判别函数对待评样本进行了评价。研究结果表明,距离判别分析模型判别砂土液化效果良好,预测准确度高,回判估计误判率低,可望成为砂土液化预测的有效手段。     

Geotechnical reconnaissance and liquefaction analyses of a liquefaction site with silty fine sand in Southern Taiwan

Geotechnical reconnaissance of a recurrent liquefaction site at a Quaternary alluvial deposit in southern Taiwan was conducted to establish a comprehensive case history for liquefaction on silty fine sand with high fines content. The liquefaction occurred at a silty fine sand layer with D₅₀ = 0.09 mm and fines content greater than 35% and was triggered by a M_w = 6.4 earthquake on March 4, 2010, which induced maximum horizontal acceleration up to 0.189 g at the site. In situ subsurface characterizations, including standard penetration test, cone penetration test, and shear wave velocity measurement, were performed as well as cyclic simple shear tests on undisturbed specimens retrieved by a modified hydraulic piston sampler. Comparisons of cyclic resistance ratios (CRRs) indicate that CPT sounding with standard penetration rate could overestimate the resistance ratio and drainage conditions during penetration should be considered for high fines content soil in the liquefaction analysis. Additionally, variations of CRRs from different in situ tests indicate that correlations among in situ tests and CRR could be soil specific and precautions should be taken when using these curves on silty fine sands.     

砂土液化内部应力变化规律与工程液化判别

以往对砂土液化的研究主要侧重于水平场地、自由应力场条件下有关地基液化机理与判别等问题的研究。通常将Δu=σz=ΔUmax作为地基土液化的判据，而对工程结构物和场地条件的影响考虑不足。基于当前砂土液化问题的研究现状及工程特性，提出了将液化分为理论液化和工程液化。前者主要研究地基土液化的一般规律性问题；后者则针对具体工程结构物而言。其液化标准是以地基土在遭受地震液化时是否会导致工程结构物的破坏为依据。通过对砂土在震动液化过程中内部应力变化规律的理论分析，阐明了水平应力σx或σy对斜坡场地地基土发生侧向液化的作用机理，不能将斜坡场地的地基看作半无限空间体处理，提出了液化膨胀侧扩势Ψ的概念与计算式。指出：对斜坡场地，为避免这种侧向液化流动变形破坏，采取加强可液化土体的侧向约束、缩小偏应力差是必要的。根据工程结构物的承载力极限状态和正常使用极限状态，提出工程液化的判别准则：(1)可液化土体的地基强度τ降低到工程结构物所允许的强度值[τ，]；(2)可液化土体的膨胀侧扩势Ψ增加到其侧向约束强度[τh]；(3)可液化土体地基的变形s增大到工程结构物所允许的变形值[s]。     

砂土液化判定评价与对策

砂土液化的评定、评价及对策虽然要概念不同,但有着必然的联系,本文通过工程实例分析,对液化判定、评价及对策进行较为详细的阐述。     

砂土液化预测的Fisher判别分析模型及应用

针对砂土地震液化预测问题,基于Fisher判别分析原理(FDA),选用平均粒径、不均匀系数、标贯击数、地下水水位、砂层埋深、剪应力与有效上覆应力比、地震烈度.震中距等8个实测指标为判别因子,建立Fisher线性判别函数模型,对砂土液化进行预测.研究结果表明,Fisher判别分析结果与神经网络输出结果一致,优于规范法和Seed法判别结果,验证了该模型的合理性和可靠性.运用该模型进行判别分析,简易方便,分类效率高,对砂土液化判别快速、有效,模型适用性强,具有一定的工程应用前景.     

石碑塬滑坡黄土液化特征及其影响因素研究

石碑塬滑坡是1920年海原地震触发的大型黄土流滑,认识其破坏特征与发生机制对于黄土边坡长距离液化失稳机制的研究非常重要。对石碑塬黄土滑坡的调查和研究表明,饱和黄土或高含水率黄土具有很高的液化势和流态破坏势,在强震作用下,饱和黄土易发生液化或流滑。对石碑塬滑坡的7组原状黄土样品进行振动三轴剪切试验,并结合其微观特征分析,探讨了循环振动荷载作用下的饱和黄土孔隙水压力-应变增长模型,分析了振动液化过程中液化应力比与黄土粒度组成、土体微观结构参数及饱和度之间的关系。结果表明：黏粒含量越低,振动作用下饱和黄土孔隙水压力响应越快,液化应力比越低;黄土孔隙比越大,孔隙结构分形维数越大,液化应力比越低,振动液化后黄土孔隙分形维数降低,结构较液化之前更为致密;饱和度对黄土粒间胶结物质的赋存状态及黄土结构强度影响很大,同一土体饱和度越高,溶滤于孔隙水中的离子浓度越高,土体粒间接触点（或胶结点）越容易发生断裂,使得黄土结构强度降低,液化应力比降低。