Projection and possible causes of summer precipitation in eastern China using self-organizing map

Self-organizing map (SOM) is used to simulate summer daily precipitation over the Yangtze–Huaihe river basin in Eastern China, including future projections. SOM shows good behaviors in terms of probability distribution of daily rainfall and spatial distribution of rainfall indices, as well as consistency of multi-model simulations. Under RCP4.5 Scenario, daily rainfall at most sites (63%) is projected to shift towards larger values. For the early 21st century (2016–2035), precipitation in the central basin increases, yet decreases occur over the middle reaches of the Yangtze River as well as a part of its southeast area. For the late 21st century (2081–2100), the mean precipitation and extreme indices experience an overall increase except for a few southeast stations. The total precipitation in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and in its south area is projected to increase from 7% at 1.5 °C global warming to 11% at 2 °C, while the intensity enhancement is more significant in southern and western sites of the domain. A clustering allows to regroup all SOM nodes into four distinct regimes. Such regional synoptic regimes show remarkable stability for future climate. The overall intensification of precipitation in future climate is linked to the occurrence-frequency rise of a wet regime which brings longitudinally closer the South Asia High (eastward extended) and the Western Pacific Subtropical High (westward extended), as well as the reduction of a dry pattern which makes the two atmospheric centers of action move away from each other.     

中国东部极端降水变化特征及其与大气稳定度的关系

利用100°E以东地区通过5%质量控制的392个站逐日降水资料,对近50 a我国东部极端降水变化特征进行分析,并以1948—1976年和1977—2008年为研究子时段,讨论前后两阶段东部地区的大气湿位涡差异及大气稳定度状况。结果表明:我国东部地区极端降水表现出显著的南北差异;北方尤其是华北东部,极端降水量及其所占降水量比例均有下降趋势,而南方尤其是在长江中下游地区二者均呈增加趋势。湿位涡呈"南减北增"的趋势,对流稳定度和斜压稳定度在南方均出现变弱趋势,在北方则增强。大气性质的南北显著变化是我国东部地区极端降水呈"南增北减"分布型的一个重要原因。进一步研究表明,高纬度地区300 hPa层在1976年之后表现为温度负距平场中心,使东部地区高空热力性质产生差异,进而影响了对流稳定度的变化;同时冷中心北侧高层西风分量减小,南侧高层西风风量增大,斜压稳定度相应出现减弱和增强的变化趋势。     

A possible abrupt change in summer precipitation over eastern China around 2009

Historical studies have shown that summer rainfall in eastern China undergoes decadal variations, with three apparent changes in the late 1970s, 1992, and the late 1990s. The present observational study indicates that summer precipitation over eastern China likely underwent a change in the late 2000s, during which the main spatial pattern changed from negative–positive–negative to positive–negative in the meridional direction. This change in summer precipitation over eastern China may have been associated with circulation anomalies in the middle/upper troposphere. A strong trough over Lake Baikal created a southward flow of cold air during 2009–15, compared with 1999–2008, while the westward recession of the western Pacific subtropical high strengthened the moisture transport to the north, creating conditions that were conducive for more rainfall in the north during this period. The phase shift of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation in the late 2000s led to the Pacific–Japan-type teleconnection wave train shifting from negative to positive phases, resulting in varied summer precipitation over eastern China.     

2021年盛夏中国东部极端降水月际演变成因及可预测性

2021年7—8月中国东部雨带演变特征与气候平均季风北推进程存在显著差异。其中,7月降水正异常中心位于江淮-华北地区,8月则南移至华中地区。2021年中国东部降水异常偏多且存在月际差异主要与7(8)月西北太平洋副热带高压(西太副高)偏北偏东(偏南偏西)、东亚副热带西风急流偏北(偏南)以及南亚高压持续东伸相关联。进一步研究表明,热带对流的活跃位置和北大西洋的增暖加强是影响其降水中心南移的主要原因。2021年7月热带大气低频振荡(MJO)在海洋性大陆地区活跃对应其热带海洋性大陆对流异常偏强,激发北传的类太平洋-日本(PJ)型遥相关波列,使得西太副高偏北偏东,有利于西北太平洋水汽在江淮-华北地区辐合,导致其降水偏多。8月,新发展MJO在热带印度洋上空对流异常持续偏强,加强局地经向环流,使得中国35°N以南至西北太平洋地区出现异常下沉运动,有利于西太副高南移西伸。此外,2021年8月北大西洋海温(SST)异常偏暖激发对流层高层向东南传播的Rossby波,有利于南亚高压加强和东亚副热带西风急流加强南移。因此,8月降水中心南移至华中地区。CFSv2预测系统(6月起报)结果能预测7月江淮-华北大部分地区降水偏多,但预测的8月华中南部地区降水偏少与实况相反。这可能是由于模式能够较好再现7月海洋性大陆热带对流活动影响江淮-华北地区降水的过程,但不能预测2021年8月热带印度洋对流活动和北大西洋海温异常偏暖对华中地区降水的影响。     

华东地区主要地形因子对极端小时降水峰型的影响研究

在全球持续增温的背景下,极端降水事件频发,给人民的生产生活和社会的经济发展造成了严重威胁。本文利用华东315个气象台站2011—2018年的小时观测数据,按照降水日峰值特征将华东地区极端小时降水分为单峰型和多峰型,基于多尺度地理加权回归模型,探讨了两种峰型极端小时降水空间分布与地形因子的关系。研究表明两种峰型极端降水分别对应常规年份和厄尔尼诺年,地形起伏度在两类峰型的降水中都为最重要的地形因子,主导区域主要为浙江北部及浙闽山脉北部;其他地形因子在两类峰型的降水中作用存在显著差异。单峰型降水中,第二重要的地形因子为地形坡度,主导区域位于浙闽山脉东南侧;而在多峰型降水中,第二重要的地形因子为离海岸线距离,且主导区域位于沿海地区。对二者差异的机理分析发现,单峰型降水以午后对流为主,浙闽山脉东南侧地形坡度较大处的对流有效位能值较大,容易促发对流;而在多峰型降水中清晨降水以平流为主,水汽输送明显较单峰型降水大,因此,离海岸线距离对该类型降水有重要影响。     

西北东部夏季极端干旱事件机理分析

利用国家气候中心提供的1951—2012年逐日降水、温度、综合气象干旱指数、逐月NCEP/NCAR再分析资料等,采用REOF分析、动力诊断、相关分析以及合成分析等方法,从大气环流异常特征、高空急流与季风异常等方面揭示西北东部夏季极端干旱事件的可能机理。研究发现西北东部夏季发生极端干旱时,副热带急流轴"倾斜",且急流与东亚夏季风强度均处于相对偏弱阶段。极端干旱的成因研究表明:急流轴"倾斜"及其强度减弱导致西北东部地区高层大范围的异常辐合;该地区为水汽源区,对流层整层水汽收支显著亏损;此外,该地区低层盛行来自内陆干旱区的异常西南风,东亚夏季风强度偏弱,高低层配置及大尺度环流形势不利于降水产生。     

1960-2005年长江中下游极端降水指数变化特征分析

本文利用长江中下游流域内的81个气象站,对长江中下游极端降水指数的时空变化特征进行分析.结果发现,在时间尺度上,长江中下游地区近46 a来极端降水指数呈上升趋势,其中降水强度上升趋势最明显,各个极端降水指数在年代际尺度上具有相同的变化特征,均存在着12 a左右的周期振荡,在年际尺度上,各极端降水指数变化周期并不一致.大雨日数与其他指数相比突变时间比较早,发生在1979年,其他几个指数突变时间比较接近,出现在1990年前后.在空间变化上,除极端湿天降水量在全区均为上升趋势外,其他几种极端降水指数在江苏东部地区、湖北西北部都存在着极端降水指数的负变化趋势,高值区主要分布在江西大部、湖北东南部、湖南东北部地区.     

袁河流域极端降水事件成因分析

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心格点再分析资料和HYSPLIT模式对袁河流域5次极端降水天气过程的平均环流背景、主要影响系统、物理量场以及降水发生过程中的120 h气块后向轨迹特征进行分析。结果发现:(1)极端降水发生时,高层袁河流域处于南亚高压东侧辐散气流中,中层副热带高压位置适中,受584 dagpm线附近的西南气流控制,低层正好处于切变线上,且有强盛的西南气流向降水区输送能量和水汽。(2)物理量场上,袁河流域附近低层辐合、高层辐散,垂直速度场、水汽分布、水汽通量散度场都有利于该区域出现暴雨天气。(3)与袁河流域一般性暴雨的平均t-lnp图对比分析可见,极端暴雨的能量条件更好,降水对流性更强,水汽条件也更为充沛。(4)袁河流域极端降水上空的水汽路径总体上可以归纳为5条。来源于孟加拉湾附近、中南半岛南部和云南南部的西南水汽路径最多,占轨迹总数的59.5%;其次是来源于我国南海的南方路径,主要位于1 500 m以下,占轨迹总数的15.0%。     

宁夏夏季极端降水日数的变化规律及其成因

利用1961—2015年宁夏逐日降水资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料及NOAA海温资料,分析了宁夏夏季极端降水的变化规律及其成因。结果表明:1)55年来宁夏夏季极端降水日数呈微弱减少趋势,但变率在1994年发生了由大到小的气候突变。各月极端降水的变化存在差异:6月极端降水日数在1982年发生突变,突变后日数显著增多;7月极端降水日数呈微弱减少趋势;8月极端降水日数在1995年发生突变,突变后日数显著减少。2)500 h Pa高度场上6月中国华北—东北与西太平洋上的偶极型异常分布、8月西西伯利亚—蒙古—副热带地区的遥相关波列和EAP异常分布型以及700h Pa上宁夏6月偏东风增强和8月偏北风增强,是导致极端降水事件变化的直接原因。3)6月菲律宾附近海温偏高,有利于500 h Pa高度距平场形成华北—东北与西太平洋的"+-"偶极型异常分布;8月拉尼娜事件的发生,有利于我国呈现西低东高分布型,激发EAP遥相关波列,冷空气与水汽条件相配合,从而导致宁夏极端降水事件频发。     

北京地区夏季极端降水变化特征及城市化影响

利用1981-2016年京津冀地区174个国家站逐日降水资料,采用百分位方法和线性倾向估计方法对京津冀地区极端降水的时空分布特征及演变趋势进行了分析。结果表明：（1）对于京津冀地区极端降水空间分布,不同百分位降水阈值表现为一致的分布特征,年平均极端降水量、平均极端降水强度与百分位极端降水阈值分布大体一致,而年平均极端降水日数的分布则与其相反。（2）年平均极端降水量在103.6~259.1 mm之间,年平均极端降水日数在3.0~4.0 d之间,平均极端降水强度在大雨到暴雨之间,极端降水量对总降水量贡献达28%以上。（3）极端降水总站次和极端降水日数年变化趋势一致,7月、8月和10月是极端降水较活跃月份。（4）在36 a期间,年平均极端降水量、年平均极端降水日数、平均极端降水强度以及极端降水量对总降水量贡献的变化趋势分布情况基本一致,呈减少趋势的站点均相对较多,年平均极端降水量增减幅度较大,年平均极端降水日数变化在1 d·（10 a）^-1以内,平均极端降水强度和极端降水量对总降水量贡献减少趋势相对明显。

     

近20年中国气象灾害损失的初步分析

采用全国气象部门收集的县（区）域行政单元灾情普查资料,结合全国气象站点降水观测资料,分析了1984—2008年中国暴雨及其引发的洪涝灾害的时空演变特点及灾害损失情况,揭示了气候变化及人类活动双重作用下中国暴雨洪涝灾害变化趋势和演变特点,以及暴雨洪涝灾害影响的时空差异性。结果表明：近25 a来中国暴雨日数总体上稍有增加,暴雨强度和暴雨天数的空间分布均表现为南方高于北方,东部高于西部的特点,20世纪90年代中后期为中国暴雨高发期。研究时段内,中国暴雨洪涝灾害造成的直接经济损失呈增加趋势,但直接经济损失占当年GDP的比例则呈下降趋势,平均每年经济损失约为573亿元人民币,损失较高的地区主要集中在中国南方地区,县域年平均损失超过2 000万元的县约占15%,其中有34个县超过亿元。受灾人口呈增加趋势,但因灾死亡人口呈下降趋势;暴雨洪涝灾害对农作物受灾面积和绝收面积的影响均呈微弱上升趋势,年平均作物受灾面积近9.00×10⁶ hm²,作物绝收面积为1.27×10⁶ hm²。

     

青藏高原中东部夏季极端降水年代际变化特征

基于中国国家级地面气象站基本气象要素日值数据集得到的均一化降水序列,计算了夏季极端降水指数,分析青藏高原中东部1961—2014年夏季极端降水年代际变化趋势。结果表明:青藏高原中东部地区夏季降水量占全年总降水的50%以上,且夏季降水的变化趋势存在区域性差异,北部站点主要为增加趋势,南部增加和减少趋势的站点相当。夏季极端降水除西藏东部主要为减少趋势外,其他地区主要为增加趋势,且极强降水量的年代际变化趋势显著。大部分夏季极端降水指数的变化趋势在1970s发生转折,在此之前表现为减少的趋势,之后为增加趋势。通过Mann-Kendall趋势检验,在2000年之后强降水量和极强降水量出现突变。     

2018年北京\

利用2010—2019年自动气象观测站逐小时降水资料,分析了近10 a浙江省极端短时强降水（1 h雨量≥50 mm或3 h雨量≥100 mm的降水）的时空分布特征,结果表明：（1）浙江省每年约有极端短时强降水169.8 h,主要分布在暖季（5—10月）及午后（14—21时）,东部沿海（包括东南沿海和杭州湾）是高发带。（2）极端短时强降水主要始于5月,由浙南逐渐向浙北伸展,7—9月对应站点基本覆盖全境,而8月影响范围最大,对应有站点逐月年均频数峰值1.3 h·a^-1,位于东南沿海,月平均强度峰值99.1 mm·h^-1,位于杭州湾,10月及以后降水向东部沿海收缩,过程趋于结束。（3）极端短时强降水午后高发且强度增大,影响范围最广,并在17时有年均频数日变化曲线峰值,达17.4 h·a^-1,同时午后东南沿海高频站点密集,占全省高频站数的83.2%,杭州湾降水强度增加,50%以上的站点超过57.6 mm·h^-1。（4）地形地貌与极端短时强降水的空间分布关系密切,东南沿海处的海陆交界下垫面及喇叭口地形有助于极端短时强降水的发生,而杭州湾洋面向内陆伸展的喇叭口地貌对降水效率的提高有促进作用。

     

中国南方降水及其极端事件的动力-统计相结合延伸期预报

延伸期预报是无缝隙预测系统中的薄弱环节,如何提高灾害天气过程的延伸期预报技巧是国际热点及前沿问题。本研究基于2005年12月—2014年8月的观测/再分析资料,通过奇异值分解方法,揭示了与中国南方低频降水变化高度耦合的热带对流和中纬度波列信号。利用中国气象局参加国际次季节至季节预报计划模式（BCC-CPS-S2Sv2模式,简称BCC S2S模式）的回报数据,对中国南方低频降水异常场进行统计降尺度,构建了一套动力-统计相结合的延伸期降水预测模型。独立预测时段（2014年12月—2019年8月）的结果表明,BCC S2S模式可以提前10—15 d预报中国南方大部分区域的异常降水;提前15—20 d以上预报时,动力-统计结合预报模型对冬季（夏季）华南沿海地区（长江以北地区）的降水时间演变、降水空间分布及极端强降水事件的预报技巧均优于BCC S2S模式。文中提出的思路和方法可广泛应用于其他区域气象要素和极端天气事件的延伸期预报。     

华北地区小时极端降水的非稳态研究

本文以华北五省为研究区,基于1960—2014年小时降水数据建立1、2、3、6、12和24 h极端降水序列,对比分析稳态和非稳态假设下极端降水重现期估计的差异。研究表明：1960―2014年华北不同时间极端降水的变化趋势略有不同,时间越短呈上升趋势的站点越多,1~3 h的极端降水呈上升趋势的站点较多,稳态和非稳态假设下的20~100 a一遇重现期平均差异较大,其中,1 h极端降水的显著上升站点中,二者的平均相对误差达30%~43%;而6~24 h极端降水中,呈下降趋势的站点增多,其中,24 h极端降水显著下降站点中,二者的平均相对误差达-43%~-32%;无显著趋势站点,二者的平均相对误差大部分介于-10%~10%。随着重现期增大,二者差异的不确定性区间增大,不同变化趋势站点表现一致。研究发现,华北地区短历时极端降水强度增加,稳态假设下极端降水的重现期会严重低估。因此,选用非稳态假设估计极端降水的重现期,将降低极端降水的灾害风险。     

Recent changes in sea level and their possible causes

A new analysis of ‘global’ sea level has been made that largely avoids space/time bias of previous works. A coherent pattern of increasing relative sea level (RSL) was found to exist on average at all stations analyzed between 1903–1969. Subject to considerable assumption, the rate of RSL increase associated with this pattern was 15 cm/century. A similar analysis of the period 1930–1975 again showed RSL increasing on average everywhere but in the western half of the North Pacific Ocean. Decrease of RSL in this area was substantiated by hydrographic data. Thus in recent years the concept of a ‘global’ sea level rise is not supported. The temporal behavior of thenear global signals from both time periods was well approximated by a simple linear trend. There was no evidence of a more rapid rise in RSL in recent years. Potential causes of the above RSL change were investigated. Changes in the position of the earth's axis of rotation support the idea that the RSL change was due to approximately equal melting of Greenland/Antarctica. Changes in the length of day only marginally support this idea. However, other attractive geophysical explanations for variations in both these astronomical parameters exist. Observed change in sea surface temperature (SST), if representative of reasonable changes in vertical thermal structure, could give the observed RSL change. However, the SST data are likely biased instrumentally toward increasing trend. Also, thermal expansion of the oceans would not significantly affect the rotational parameters although changes in these parameters could be due to non-RSL related processes. Changes in ocean circulation and/or subsidence along all the coastal margins simultaneously seem unlikely causes of the observed change in RSL. In summary, it is not possible at this time to explain reliably the apparent increase in RSL.     

Trends of precipitation extreme indices over a subtropical semi-arid area using PERSIANN-CDR

In this study, satellite-based daily precipitation estimation data from precipitation estimation from remotely sensed information using artificial neural networks (PERSIANN)-climate data record (CDR) are being evaluated in Iran. This dataset (0.25°, daily), which covers over three decades of continuous observation beginning in 1983, is evaluated using rain-gauge data for the period of 1998–2007. In addition to categorical statistics and mean annual amount and number of rainy days, ten standard extreme indices were calculated to observe the behavior of daily extremes. The results show that PERSIANN-CDR exhibits reasonable performance associated with the probability of detection and false-alarm ratio, but it overestimates precipitation in the area. Although PERSIANN-CDR mostly underestimates extreme indices, it shows relatively high correlations (between 0.6316–0.7797) for intensity indices. PERSIANN-CDR data are also used to calculate the trend in annual amounts of precipitation, the number of rainy days, and precipitation extremes over Iran covering the period of 1983–2012. Our analysis shows that, although annual precipitation decreased in the western and eastern regions of Iran, the annual number of rainy days increased in the northern and northwestern areas. Statistically significant negative trends are identified in the 90th percentile daily precipitation, as well as the mean daily precipitation from wet days in the northern part of the study area. The positive trends of the maximum annual number of consecutive dry days in the eastern regions indicate that the dry periods became longer in these arid areas.     

A relation between extreme daily precipitation and extreme short term precipitation

The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) has published the KNMI’06 climate scenarios in 2006. These scenarios give the possible states of the climate in The Netherlands for the next century. Projections of changes in precipitation were made for a time scale of 1 day. The urban drainage sector is, however, more interested in projections on shorter time scales. Specifically, time scales of 1 h or less. The aim of this research is to provide projections of precipitation at these shorter time scales based on the available daily scenarios. This involves an analysis of climate variables and their relations to precipitation at different time scales. On the basis of this analysis, one can determine a numeric factor to translate daily projections into shorter time scale projections.     

Decreasing precipitation occurs in daily extreme precipitation intervals across China in observations and model simulations

Extreme precipitation response to increasing temperature includes not only changes of frequency and intensity, but also changes of extreme precipitation interval (EPIV) and the precipitation during the neighboring daily extreme precipitations interval (EPIP). These changes have not been fully evaluated yet in observations or climate model simulations although they are very useful to understand variations of extreme precipitation. We used daily precipitation data from 669 meteorological stations during the past five decades across China and projections of 19 general circulation models from CMIP5 under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios to investigate variations of EPIV and EPIP. We found the national average annual EPIV increased across China during the last five decades, while annual EPIP significantly decreased. The decreases mainly occurred in southwest China, east China, and southeast China. At national and regional scales, the average annual EPIV and EPIP showed greater decreases under the RCP8.5 scenario than those under the RCP4.5 scenario from 2006 to 2100. Annual EPIP showed a stronger correlation with extreme precipitation intensity than EPIV. The national average annual EPIP had a significant positive correlation with the Western Pacific Subtropical High Area Index. The abnormal geopotential heights over western Mongolia and the western Pacific at 500 hpa as well as the abnormal SSTs in Japan Sea and the western of Pacific in rainy seasons would result in abnormal annual EPIVs and EPIPs in China. This study may provide references for flooding prediction, water resources management, and disaster prevention and mitigation.     

超强厄尔尼诺事件对中国东部春夏季极端降水频率的影响

利用中国国家气象信息中心提供的中国地面逐日降水0.5°×0.5°格点数据集,研究了超强厄尔尼诺事件衰减年春、夏季中国东部极端降水发生概率的变化,并通过诊断超强厄尔尼诺自身及其衍生模态各自的水汽输送和垂直运动特征,探讨了超强厄尔尼诺事件对中国东部极端降水的影响机制。结果表明,超强厄尔尼诺事件衰减年春季,整个中国东部尤其是江淮以北地区,极端降水事件发生概率显著增大。同年夏季,长江流域极端降水发生概率比常规年份高出近1倍,而在华南和华北地区则相对减小。诊断分析显示,春季超强厄尔尼诺自身及其与热带太平洋地区年循环相互作用衍生出的组合模态（C-mode）均对降水的环流背景影响显著,热带太平洋西北部低空存在强盛的反气旋性异常环流,导致大量水汽在中国东部汇聚并上升,有利于该地区极端降水事件的发生。夏季,厄尔尼诺事件已经消亡,但与C-mode影响相关联的西北太平洋异常反气旋环流仍然存在,长江流域维持极端降水事件发生的有利条件。此外,研究也显示,超强厄尔尼诺事件衰减年春、夏季中国东部对流层中上层持续有异常经向风活动,频繁的南北冷暖气流交汇可能导致强对流事件发生次数增多,这也为该区域极端降水的频发提供了支持。