Usability evaluation for geographic information systems: a systematic literature review

The growing dissemination of geographic information systems (GIS) in recent years has increased the availability and use of geospatial tools. Despite this trend in GIS, usability is often not considered, and studies on usability are relatively rare. However, it has been shown that the effectiveness, efficiency and user satisfaction of these tools when used for geospatial tasks may be impacted by their design and terminology. In this article, we present a comprehensive review of the relevant literature. We analyze and compare publications of GIS usability evaluations, the methods that were used, and the findings reported. We thus produce a more detailed picture of GIS usability evaluations. Our contributions are (1) an overview of methods applied in case studies for evaluating the usability of GIS; (2) the identification of gaps and resulting weaknesses of previous studies; and (3) challenges and opportunities for future GIS usability studies. Our findings reveal a lack of usability guidelines for GIS, a lack of methods for analyzing complex workflows, and a lack of usage studies over longer periods of time. These contributions can help GIS developers and designers to improve the usability of their systems.     

A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods

With the ubiquity of advanced web technologies and location-sensing hand held devices, citizens regardless of their knowledge or expertise, are able to produce spatial information. This phenomenon is known as volunteered geographic information (VGI). During the past decade VGI has been used as a data source supporting a wide range of services, such as environmental monitoring, events reporting, human movement analysis, disaster management, etc. However, these volunteer-contributed data also come with varying quality. Reasons for this are: data is produced by heterogeneous contributors, using various technologies and tools, having different level of details and precision, serving heterogeneous purposes, and a lack of gatekeepers. Crowd-sourcing, social, and geographic approaches have been proposed and later followed to develop appropriate methods to assess the quality measures and indicators of VGI. In this article, we review various quality measures and indicators for selected types of VGI and existing quality assessment methods. As an outcome, the article presents a classification of VGI with current methods utilized to assess the quality of selected types of VGI. Through these findings, we introduce data mining as an additional approach for quality handling in VGI.     

Volunteered geographic information research in the first decade: a narrative review of selected journal articles in GIScience

ABSTRACT

More than 10 years have passed since the coining of the term volunteered geographic information (VGI) in 2007. This article presents the results of a review of the literature concerning VGI. A total of 346 articles published in 24 international refereed journals in GIScience between 2007 and 2017 have been reviewed. The review has uncovered varying levels of popularity of VGI research over space and time, and varying interests in various sources of VGI (e.g. OpenStreetMap) and VGI-related terms (e.g. user-generated content) that point to the multi-perspective nature of VGI. Content-wise, using latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA), this study has extracted 50 specific research topics pertinent to VGI. The 50 topics have been subsequently clustered into 13 intermediate topics and three overarching themes to allow a hierarchical topic review. The overarching VGI research themes include (1) VGI contributions and contributors, (2) main fields applying VGI, and (3) conceptions and envisions. The review of the articles under the three themes has revealed the progress and the points that demand attention regarding the individual topics. This article also discusses the areas that the existing research has not yet adequately explored and proposes an agenda for potential future research endeavors.     

OutDet: an algorithm for extracting the outer surfaces of building information models for integration with geographic information systems

The integration of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and geographic information systems (GIS) is a promising but challenging topic to solve problems in construction industry. However, loading and rendering rich BIM geometric data and large-scale GIS spatial information in a unified system is still technologically challenging. Current efforts mainly simplify the geometry in BIM models, or convert BIM geometric data to a lower level of detail (LOD). By noticing that only exterior features of BIM models are visible from outdoor observation points, culling BIM interior facilities can dramatically reduce the computational burden when visualizing BIM models in GIS. This study explores the outline detection problem and presents the OutDet algorithm, which selects representative observation points, transforms & projects the BIM geometric data into the same coordinate system, and detects the visible facilities. Empirical study results show that OutDet can cull a large portion of unnecessary features when rendering BIM models in GIS. The use of outlines of BIM models is not an alternative but rather a supplementary approach for current solutions. Jointly using LOD and outer surface can help improve the efficiency of integrated BIM-GIS visualization.Because OutDet retains BIM geometry and semantics, it can be applied to more BIM-GIS applications..     

Planning of recreational trails in protected areas: Application of regression tree analysis and geographic information systems

One of the most important tasks for managers of many natural protected areas is achieving a balance between conservation of nature and recreational opportunity. This paper presents a framework based on geographic information system (GIS) and regression tree analysis of optimized recreational trail location for flexible, user-defined input parameters. The method utilizes: (1) the GIS to create a database containing field data and existing GIS/cartographic materials; (2) regression tree analysis to establish the relationships between indicators of degradation and environmental and use-related factors for existing trails, as well as to predict trail degradation for potential new trials; (3) least-cost path algorithm within a GIS framework to optimize trail route.The framework was applied to the Gorce National Park in the south of Poland. A large sample (>4500) of the field collected data about degradation of the existing trail network was linked with data about soil, geology, geomorphology and relief, and with information about the type and amount of recreational use. Based on the existing relationship, predicted trail degradation was calculated and routes for two examples of trails (hiking and motorized) were designated. The proposed methodology is objective and quantitative, and can also include knowledge of local stakeholders. The framework has the potential to design new trails (or to re-route old ones), characterized by the best possible solution for recreational and conservation functions to coexist, by routing visitors through trails with the lowest possible impact.     

Remotely-sensed data as an information source for geographical information systems in natural resource management a review

Abstract

Remotely-sensed image data have long served as a primary source of information for. geographical information systems (GIS), with the transformation of data to information provided by visual image interpretation. Digital image data, in combination with recent advances in computer technology, currently allow visual image interpretation to be realised in a completely digital processing environment. However, it remains desirable to capitalize even further on the potential of digital image data for GIS, through the use of schemes involving automated data processing. The opportunities for, and impediments to, such schemes are considered here with particular reference to the provision of information for natural resource management. It is concluded that further—although foreseeable—developments in both research and technology will be required before fully operational procedures for the automated acquisition of GIS information from image data can be established.     

Requirements and principles for the implementation and construction of large-scale geographic information systems

Abstract

This paper provides a brief survey of the history, structure and functions of ‘traditional’ geographic information systems (GIS), and then suggests a set of requirements that large-scale GIS should satisfy, together with a set of principles for their satisfaction. These principles, which include the systematic application of techniques from several sub-fields of computer science to the design and implementation of GIS and the integration of techniques from computer vision and image processing into standard GIS technology, are discussed in some detail. In particular, the paper provides a detailed discussion of questions relating to appropriate data models, data structures and computational procedures for the efficient storage, retrieval and analysis of spatially-indexed data.     

'How green is my valley?' Desktop geographic information systems as a community-based participatory mapping tool

Communities can be encouraged to participate in countryside conservation through mapping, expressing what they feel to be important or distinct locally. Established UK community 'parish map' projects focus on artwork. 'Public participation geographic information systems' potentially offer an alternative community mapping approach. Research sought to compare artwork and GIS mapping and their ease of use. Raster maps, digitizing of features and data table creation encouraged community groups to undertake thematic mapping themselves. Seamless maps removed perceived neighbourhood boundaries. Linking attribute data to maps offers an interactive approach to projects, including internet mapping. Findings indicated that hands-on use of GIS, with support, could benefit and empower community groups when responding to local geographic issues.     

Developing geographic information infrastructures: the role of access policies

Within societies, information availability is a key issue affecting society's well‐being. For geographic information, a geographic information infrastructure (GII) facilitates availability and access to geographic information for all levels of government, the commercial sector, the non‐profit sector, academia, and ordinary citizens. Although the importance of access policies in the development of a GII is commonly understood, research that has assessed the impact of access policies on this development is scant. This article adds this perspective. Based on information acquired from case‐study and literature research, the author argues that open‐access policies do not always promote GII development and in specific instances are counter‐productive. These findings may explain why many nations still adhere to cost‐recovery policies instead of following access policies recommended by research. The article provides alternatives for changing current policies into new access policies that promote GII development.     

Environmental decision support system project: an exploration of alternative architectures for geographical information systems

Abstract

Recent changes in information technology offer the opportunity to explore alternative architectures for geographical information systems (GIS) which might better support advanced applications. This paper describes the architecture and implementation of the environmental decision support system (EDSS), a prototype GIS tool kit. The architecture is based on a simple yet powerful systems model using only data collections, views and operations as the basic entity types. The design of the user interface, data management and data analysis within the model are outlined, with particular emphasis on the advanced facilities for which implementation is simplified by the architecture. A prototype applications system, BANKSIA, is also described.     

The development and applications of geographic information systems for urban and regional planning in the developing countries

Abstract

In the past 10 years, geographic information systems (GIS) have been widely used in urban and regional planning in the developed countries in Australia, North America and Europe. However, the use of GIS in urban and regional planning in the developing countries is limited and still at an early stage of development. This paper examines the current use of GIS in urban and regional planning in the developing countries in Asia. The major hindrances in the use of GIS in the developing countries is related not so much to the technology of GIS but more to data availability, leadership, organization structure and planning practice. For GIS to be more useful to urban and regional planning in the developing countries the development of a sustainable strategy in developing GIS and staff training is needed. International assistance agencies and GIS software companies can play an active role in making GIS available and usable to the planners in the developing countries.     

Volunteered geographic information quality assessment using trust and reputation modelling in land administration systems in developing countries

This article presents an innovative approach to establish the quality and credibility of Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) such that it can be considered in Land Administration Systems (LAS) on a Fit for Purpose (FFP) basis. A participatory land information system can provide affordable and timely FFP information about land and its resources. However, the establishment of such a system involves more than just technical solutions and administrative procedures: many social, economic and political aspects must be considered. Innovative approaches like VGI can help address the lack of accurate, reliable and FFP land information for LAS, but integration of such sources relies on the quality and credibility of VGI. Verifying volunteer efforts can be difficult without reference to ground truth: a novel Trust and Reputation Modelling methodology is proposed as a suitable technique to effect such VGI data set validation. This method has been applied to successfully demonstrate that VGI can produce accurate and reliable data sets which can be used to conduct regular systematic updates of geographic information in official systems. It relies on a view that the public can police themselves in establishing proxy measures of VGI quality thus facilitating VGI to be used on a FFP basis in LAS.     

Computing aspects of a large geographic information system for the European Community

Abstract

The CORINE programme (Co-ordinaled' Information on the European Environment) has been underway since 1985. Its purpose is to provide information on the environment of the entire European Community in a form suitable for assisting policy making. Such data must be accurate, integrated and readily available to the personnel for whom the system is designed. The system must be capable of dealing with large amounts of spatially-linked data from many different sources, in text, vector or raster form. The use of a geographic information system (GIS) is therefore essential. This paper describes the use of an interim system as a ‘bed’ for beginning the process of acquiring and integrating data. The data sets available are soils, climate, topography and ‘biotopes) (important areas for nature conservation). A data transfer format has been devised to provide for ease of transfer between various sites in the European Community with different mainframe computers. The interim system ensures that the needs of users can be defined and provides valuable user experience before a permanent system is installed. Other issues examined include the use of national and international networks and problems of integrating data when incorporating existing digital data from disparate sources into a large GIS.     

Fresh thing for freshman: Exploring a blended method on teaching the history of geographic thought

It is necessary for undergraduates majoring in geography to learn the history of geographic thought. Although there are different cultural and educational backgrounds between China and the West, teaching methods such as text teaching, students’ presentations and group learning are suitable for most of teachers and students even from different countries and regions. The blended method is helpful to popularize history of geographic thought and improve the level of teaching and learning. Owing to lack of the class on the history of geographic thought in countries like China, the authors try to explore a blended method for the first-year geography undergraduates and to assess the effects of this teaching based on some questionnaires. The students have different benefits and responses to this class. A special group consisting of one teacher and several undergraduates does the research and coauthors the paper through making questionnaire, interviewing and analyzing materials from 67 freshmen majoring in human geography and geography science (teacher-training) in China. For the undergraduates especially from the countries like China, it is well worth making the history of geographic thought become a necessary and interesting class.     

Kriging: a method of interpolation for geographical information systems

Geographical information systems could be improved by adding procedures for geostatistical spatial analysis to existing facilities. Most traditional methods of interpolation are based on mathematical as distinct from stochastic models of spatial variation. Spatially distributed data behave more like random variables, however, and regionalized variable theory provides a set of stochastic methods for analysing them. Kriging is the method of interpolation deriving from regionalized variable theory. It depends on expressing spatial variation of the property in terms of the variogram, and it minimizes the prediction errors which are themselves estimated. We describe the procedures and the way we link them using standard operating systems. We illustrate them using examples from case studies, one involving the mapping and control of soil salinity in the Jordan Valley of Israel, the other in semi-arid Botswana where the herbaceous cover was estimated and mapped from aerial photographic survey.     

Integration of spatial data in vector and raster formats in a geographic information system environment

This paper examines the common methods for converting spatial data sets between vector and raster formats and presents the results of extensive benchmark testing of these procedures. The tests performed are unique in this field since: (1) they used both synthetic and real test data sets; (2) they measured conversion quality, accuracy and efficiency, not just how fast the procedure operated; and (3) they were conducted in a generic geographic information system (GIS) environment without the aid of specialized computer hardware. The results show that the best overall techniques are the ones which take advantage of spatial relationships inherent in the data sets. These were the Scan Line algorithm for vector to raster conversions and the Boundary Linking algorithm for raster to vector conversions.     

SIRO-DBMS SIRO-DBMS: a database tool-kit for geographical information systems

Abstract

Progress in technical database management systems offers alternative strategies for the design and implementation of databases for geographical information systems. Desirable extensions in the user data types and database management are reviewed. A prototype geographical database tool-kit, SIRO-DBMS, which provides some spatial data types and spatial access methods as external attachments to a kernel relational database management system, is described. An ability to fragment a large set of entities into several relations while retaining the ability to search the full set as a logical unit is provided. Implementation of the geometric data types is based on mapping the types of data into a set of attributes of the atomic types supported by the kernel and specifying the relational designs for the set of atomic attributes.     

Mark on the globe: a quest for scientific bases of geographic information and its international influence

David M. Mark published his first journal article in 1970. Since then, he has written or coauthored more than 220 publications over a period of 40 years as of 28 May 2012. Based on data from Web of Science (WoS) and Google Scholar, Mark’s publications have been cited over 7410 times by researchers in more than 80 countries or regions as of 28 May 2012, when this paper was first prepared. The geographic extent of Mark’s scholarly influence is truly global. An examination of his 20 most cited articles reveals that his work in diverse areas as digital elevation models, geomorphology, geographic cognition, and ontology of the geospatial domain enjoyed a lasting impact worldwide.     

A simple method for estimating basin-scale groundwater discharge by vegetation in the basin and range province of Arizona using remote sensing information and geographic information systems

Groundwater is a vital water resource in the arid to semi-arid southwestern United States. Accurate accounting of inflows to and outflows from the groundwater system is necessary to effectively manage this shared resource, including the important outflow component of groundwater discharge by vegetation. A simple method for estimating basin-scale groundwater discharge by vegetation is presented that uses remote sensing data from satellites, geographic information systems (GIS) land cover and stream location information, and a regression equation developed within the Southern Arizona study area relating the Enhanced Vegetation Index from the MODIS sensors on the Terra satellite to measured evapotranspiration. Results computed for 16-day composited satellite passes over the study area during the 2000 through 2007 time period demonstrate a sinusoidal pattern of annual groundwater discharge by vegetation with median values ranging from around 0.3 mm per day in the cooler winter months to around 1.5 mm per day during summer. Maximum estimated annual volume of groundwater discharge by vegetation was between 1.4 and 1.9 billion m³ per year with an annual average of 1.6 billion m³. A simplified accounting of the contribution of precipitation to vegetation greenness was developed whereby monthly precipitation data were subtracted from computed vegetation discharge values, resulting in estimates of minimum groundwater discharge by vegetation. Basin-scale estimates of minimum and maximum groundwater discharge by vegetation produced by this simple method are useful bounding values for groundwater budgets and groundwater flow models, and the method may be applicable to other areas with similar vegetation types.