Watermarking of digital geospatial datasets: a review of technical,legal and copyright issues

Gathering data accounts for more than 80% of the cost of any GIS project. Fast Internet connections and digital datasets threaten the investments of data producers through data piracy. Outside the GIS community this problem has been known for a long time, and possible solutions exist for digital imagery, formatted text, 3D meshes and so on, showing possible links to typical spatial data. This is largely achieved through embedding hidden information in a dataset without producing perceptible changes in the data, a process known as watermarking. The producer can recover the embedded information on request in order to produce evidence of ownership in a court, so the overall strategy relies on a legal basis rather than technical ones. This paper analyses the state-of-the-art for watermarking protection in digital geographical datasets. Digital imagery is demonstrably a more mature area than geographical information, even with multiple commercial vendors offering watermarking protection. 2D vector and point datasets have received less attention from the research community; however, 3D meshes have been considered by the CAD community and a handful of techniques are available for that case, and they are reviewed here.     

A spatio-temporal ontology for geographic information integration

This paper presents an axiomatic formalization of a theory of top-level relations between three categories of entities: individuals, universals, and collections. We deal with a variety of relations between entities in these categories, including the sub-universal relation among universals and the parthood relation among individuals, as well as cross-categorial relations such as instantiation and membership. We show that an adequate understanding of the formal properties of such relations – in particular their behavior with respect to time – is critical for geographic information processing.

The axiomatic theory is developed using Isabelle, a computational system for implementing logical formalisms. All proofs are computer verified and the computational representation of the theory is available online.     

Integrative representation and inference of qualitative locations about points,lines, and polygons

Qualitative knowledge representation of spatial locations and relations is popular in many text-based media, for example, postings on social networks, news reports, and encyclopedia, as representing qualitative spatial locations is indispensable to infer spatial knowledge from them. However, an integrative model capable of handling direction-based locations of various spatial objects is missing. This study presents an integrative representation and inference framework about direction-based qualitative locations for points, lines, and polygons. In the framework, direction partitions of different types of reference objects are first unified to create a partition consisting of cells, segments, and corners. They serve as a frame of reference to locate spatial objects (e.g., points, lines, and polygons). Qualitative relations are then defined to relate spatial objects to the elements in a cell partition, and to form the model of qualitative locations. Last, based on the integrative representation, location-based reasoning mechanism is presented to derive topological relations between objects from their locations, such as point–point, line–line, point–line, point–polygon, line–polygon, and polygon–polygon relations. The presented model can locate any type of spatial objects in a frame of reference composed of points, lines, and polygons, and derive topological relations between any pairs of objects from the locations in a unified method.     

A Qualitative Study of the Professional Relationship between Family Physicians and Hospital Specialists

The professional relationships between family physicians (general practitioners or GPs) and specialist doctors are crucial in a referral-based national health service such as that in the United Kingdom. They may, for example, have a fundamental influence on what in the past have been assumed to be logical or proximity-based utilisation patterns of secondary and even tertiary hospital facilities if GPs refer to specialists with whom they have greater rapport. Until recently, research has identified a generally poor mutual understanding between the two key clinical branches of the National Health Service (NHS), and this research was conducted to determine the state of the current relationship. A range of qualitative methods was employed—including key informant interviews, focus groups, and in-depth interviews—with family doctors and specialists in the south and west region of the United Kingdom. The participants described a much better mutual relationship than that found in previous studies. Four major issues were identified relating to professional interaction. These included the reasons for choosing one of the two main branches of medicine in which to practice, the ways in which doctors interact over clinical issues, the effects of teaching and learning together on the relationship, and possible future models of professional interaction. In process terms, the theme of cooperation was more evident than that of conflict and there was minimal evidence of a struggle for power or status. If anything, the balance of influence within the profession seemed to be shifting in favour of the primary practitioners rather than the specialists. This research therefore indicates key variables for inclusion in future behavioural studies of the use of health services in physician referral-based systems. We illustrate the strengths and potential of qualitative methods in health care research and health care geography for investigating professional relationships which are likely to impact on patient care and service quality as well as being factors that might influence spatial patterns of patient behaviour.     

空间关系推理方法分类体系

为对已有空间关系推理方法进行分析和评价,必须建立空间关系推理方法的分类体系.合理的分类体系不仅有利于正确理解和使用已有空间推理方法,更有助于提出新的空间关系推理方法.该文将空间关系种类、空间关系描述模型、推理参照系统、空间对象动态变化、空间对象类型、空间对象复杂程度、对象尺度特征、对象层次特征8个因素作为指标,建立了空间关系推理方法分类体系;以此体系为标准,分析和评述了已有空间关系推理方法.     

地理空间关系确定性描述与集成推理

地理要素的空间关系在GIS空间数据建模、空间分析、地图自动综合等方面起着重要作用,研究如何快速判断要素间空间关系是否发生变化,从而有效维护空间关系具有重要的科学意义。对目前有关地理空间关系确定性描述及其集成推理的研究成果进行综合分析与分类,分析其适应性与特点,并就该研究方向存在和需要解决的问题进行分析。     

Computing the fuzzy topological relations of spatial objects based on induced fuzzy topology

For modeling the topological relations between spatial objects, the concepts of a bound on the intersection of the boundary and interior, and the boundary and exterior are defined in this paper based on the newly developed computational fuzzy topology. Furthermore, the qualitative measures for the intersections are specified based on the α‐cut induced fuzzy topology, which are (A_α∧?A)(x)<1?α and ((A^c)_α∧?A)(x)<1?α. In other words, the intersection of the interior and boundary or boundary and exterior are always bounded by 1?α, where α is a value of a level cutting. Specifically, the following areas are covered: (a) the homeomorphic invariants of the fuzzy topology; (b) a definition of the connectivity of the newly developed fuzzy topology; (c) a model of the fuzzy topological relations between simple fuzzy regions in GIS; and (d) the quantitative values of topological relations can be calculated.     

俄罗斯和澳大利亚农业比较研究

俄罗斯和澳大利亚的自然禀赋相近,然而两国农业发展水平差距巨大。澳大利亚是高效农业,商品化、国际化程度高,有3/4的“富余”产品出口国外;俄罗斯则自给不足,肉、奶、蛋、土豆等依赖进口。本文从土地所有权、农业生产主体和农业生产分工三个角度出发,分析造成俄、澳农业劳动生产率差距的原因,探讨提高土地利用率、规模与效率以及市场对组织生产的调节作用等问题。     

A double continuous approach to visualization and analysis of categorical maps

A method to visualize multiple membership maps, called ‘Colour mixture’ (CM) is described and compared with alternative techniques: defuzzification and Pixel mixture. Six landform parameters were used to derive the landform classes using supervised fuzzy k-means classification. The continuous categorical map is derived by GIS calculations with colours, where colour values are considered to represent the taxonomic space spanned by the attribute variables. Coordinates of the nine class centres (landform facets) were first transformed from multivariate to two-dimensional attribute space using factor analysis, and then projected on the Hue Saturation Intensity (HSI) colourwheel. The taxonomic value was coded with the Hue and confusion with Saturation. To improve visual impression, saturation was replaced with whiteness. Classes that were closer in attribute space were merged into similar generic colours. The CM technique limits the derived mixed-colour map to seven generic hues independently of the total number of classes, which provides a basis for automated generalization. The confusion index derived from the mixed-colour map was used to derive primary boundaries and to locate areas of higher taxonomic confusion.     

珠三角城市区域治理的尺度重构机制研究——基于产业合作项目与交通基础设施项目的比较

珠三角作为中国东南沿海的巨型城市区域,旨在构建跨越经济社会系统的多元协同的综合一体化地区。本文以深汕特别合作区与穗莞深城际铁路两个区域合作项目为例,借鉴“新国家空间”理论,基于区域治理所面临的经济发展困境与行政治理困境,分析区域治理过程中的权力上移和下移,即省市关系调整的弹性应对策略。研究发现：区域产业合作项目中,为克服城市间合作的制度化不足的行政治理困境,省政府进行了包括资源注入、事权下放、去管制和扩大地方自主权的区域治理权力的尺度下移;区域基础设施项目中,为了解决省政府财权不足的行政治理困境,省政府进行了水平权力重组以构建综合博弈体、强制性地方事权上收和以收权导向的行政奖励的区域治理权力的尺度上移。由此,本文认为珠三角区域治理并非单向、机械的尺度建构过程,而是区域项目建设导向下,以修复行政治理困境为目标,灵活多向的尺度重配过程。     

中国政治地理与地缘政治理论研究展望:青年学者笔谈

中国政治地理学和地缘政治学的发展相对滞后,目前仍未形成系统、有共识的学科理论框架。为此,基于2019年先后在上海和广州举办的多次研讨会,国内15位青年地理学者结合自身的研究基础和中国政治地理学和地缘政治学科建设和理论发展的需要,提出了一系列未来值得深入研究的中国政治地理学和地缘政治研究方向。这些研究方向具体包括：多尺度的地缘环境、科技地缘政治、批判地缘政治、环境政治、能源地缘政治、国别区域研究、通权论、民意政治、都市政治、劳工政治地理、区域一体化的政治地理、城市政治地理学、中西权地秩序比较、新技术革命催生的新人地关系、尺度政治、马克思主义政治地理学、历史政治地理和基于福柯治理术的空间-权力关系理论等。此外,各位青年学者一致认为,中国政治地理学和地缘政治研究应该具有多尺度特征、加强原创性理论研究、回归“地理空间-权力关系”的主线。希望本文抛砖引玉,引发更多关于中国政治地理学和地缘政治学科建设和理论发展的讨论和成果。     

Integrated Coastal Management: A comparative analysis of four UK initiatives

The effectiveness of institutional arrangements and policies for governance has become a key question within the sustainability paradigm, not least in coastal areas which have unique issues and jurisdictions across the land–sea interface. In the UK, approximately 60 non-statutory coastal management initiatives have been established at the local/regional level since the 1990s, based on a variety of programmes and projects. Proposals for a UK Marine Bill have raised questions about the role of non-statutory initiatives in the system of governance. The traditional sectoral approach to management and planning is being modified due to the pressure of increased human activities, but doubts exist about what effective contribution local and regional partnerships can make. The paper reports extensive examples of Integrated Coastal Management initiatives engaging institutions and society to produce outputs which have transformed management, promoting long-term, collaborative, participatory and ecologically sustainable approaches. The paper concludes that there are demonstrable benefits in taking a partnership approach to coastal management at a local level, yet these forms of planning and management are not widely accepted or embedded within the current system of governance.     

A framework to enhance semantic flexibility for analysis of distributed phenomena

While some geographic phenomena hold uniform properties, such as land‐use zones, many geographic phenomena are distributed such that their properties vary across an extended area. While such distributed phenomena are best represented as continuous surfaces, individual objects (or features) often emerge among clusters of high or low values in a field. For example, areas of relatively high elevation may be viewed as hills, while flat low‐lying areas are perceived as plains in a terrain. A comprehensive spatial analysis of distributed phenomena should examine both the spatial variance of its attribute surfaces and the characteristics of individual objects embedded in the field. An immediate research challenge to meet such spatial analysis needs is that these emerging features often have vague boundaries that vary according to the use and the user. The nature, and even existence, of these objects depend upon the range of values, or thresholds, used to define them. We propose a representation framework that takes a dual raster‐vector approach to capture both field‐ and object‐like characteristics of distributed phenomena and maintain multiple representations of embedded features delineated by boundaries that are likely to be relevant for the expected uses of the data. We demonstrate how boundaries influence the analysis and understanding of spatiotemporal characteristics of distributed phenomena. Using precipitation as a proof of concept, we show how the proposed framework enhances semantic flexibility in spatiotemporal query and analysis of distributed phenomena in geographic information systems.     

Integrating factor analysis and the Delphi method in scenario development: A case study of Dalmatia,Croatia

When developing scenarios, it is challenging to integrate quantitative and qualitative methods. This paper describes a new approach to scenario construction for spatial research and planning that was used to conduct a case study of constructing explorative development scenarios for Dalmatia, Croatia, until 2031. The methodology of scenario development consisted of: 1. factor analysis, which was used to reduce and classify a large set of data on different aspects of spatial development and to isolate underlying factors of development characteristics. These factors were used as variables to develop a regional typology; and 2. two rounds of the Delphi method, where an interdisciplinary panel of experts examined possible future developments in the light of aforementioned factors supplemented with other, nonquantifiable factors. Multivariate analysis was proven to provide a sound, but also complex, quantitative foundation for recognising the underlying driving forces of development characteristics, while the participation of experts in the Delphi panel significantly improved recognition and interpretation of the factors crucial to scenario development.     

Ecosystem health assessment based on analysis of a land use database

Data resources and assessment frameworks are two keys to ecosystem health assessment (EHA). Application of the land use database together with the Pressure–State–Response (PSR) model in EHA provides better precision relative to traditional data resources and assessment frameworks for EHA at the county scale. The raw data are taken from The Anlu County Annals, The Soil Records of Anlu County, and The Statistical Yearbook of National Economy in Anlu County. The spatial and attribute data are partly extracted from the database of current land use in Anlu City using the MAPGIS platform. Based on the results from principal component analysis (PCA), a total of eleven indicators were selected to build an indicator system designed to assess the ecosystem health at the county scale. According to the PSR model, the scores from three indices (press index, state index, and response index) and a comprehensive assessment index (CAI) were calculated, and an assessment map was constructed. The results from the index scores and spatial analysis display a large range for the state of ecosystem health due to the evolution of natural ecosystems and human activities at the county scale. The precision of the current land use database (scale of 1:10,000) makes it a better candidate for evaluating ecosystem health than the traditional data resources. This study also demonstrates the numerous benefits of combining land use databases with GIS functions to assess ecosystem health at the county scale.     

近400年来北极地区和中国气温变化的对比研究

对中国和北极地区近400年来的气温变化进行了趋势分析和谱特征分析,通过对比认为,北极地区及中国基本上都有17世纪、19世纪两个寒冷期和18世纪、20世纪两个温暖期,在一定程度上说明了气候变化的全球性,但两地区气温的冷暖转化不同步。中国大部分地区(除华东、新疆、西藏区外)17、19世纪升温开始得较北极早;北极地区绝大部分站点18世纪升温较中国明显,且气温变化的区域差异较大。400aBP以来两地气温变化的周期较为一致,以130～140年、100年、80年的周期为主,说明400aBP以来气温的变化具有全球性,而且气温的变化受太阳活动的影响较大,自然因素尤其是太阳活动的影响是气候变化的主要原因。     

多灾种风险评估方法述评——基于5份国际权威报告的对比分析

多灾种风险评估是制定综合风险防范战略的基础工作之一,而目前尚缺乏一套通用的多灾种风险评估方法。论文选取全球减少灾害风险评估报告、全球气候风险指数报告、世界风险管理指数报告、世界风险指数和世界自然灾害风险地图集等5份国际权威风险评估报告,从评估目的、评估内容、模型方法、评估结果等方面对比分析可知：(1) 5份报告评估目的各有侧重,其中4份评估报告构建了动态风险评估机制,能够实现评估报告的定期更新发布;(2)以风险要素的综合为表征的多灾种风险评估方法易于推广应用,但需要进一步提升指标可用性,并且采取更直观、易于理解的风险表征方式;(3) 5份报告评估结果中“一带一路”沿线国家(地区)的风险水平略高于全球水平,是全球灾害风险防范的重点;(4)综合来看,5份报告各有自身的优缺点,未来可以结合“多灾种叠加损失”“灾害链损失”等概念丰富多灾种风险评估的模型方法、指标体系与结果表征。     

The production of meaning in outdoor recreation: A study of Norwegian practice

Outdoor recreation policy and management have largely been occupied by questions related to use patterns: who participates in which activities, where and when? However, it is commonly held that ideas and practices mutually influence each other. In outdoor recreation, it could be expected that the observable use patterns are influenced by the meaning recreationists ascribe to their activities. In this study 14 narratives of outdoor recreation practices are analyzed, in order to broaden the traditional understanding of the meaning of outdoor recreation.     

北纬地区温度和卫星监测的植被活动节律变化的比较分析(英文)

Plant growth at northern latitudes is highly responsive to the climatic changes that have occurred over recent decades. However, the sensitivity of the phasing of the seasonal cycle of terrestrial ecosystems to a changing environment remains less widely understood. We present an investigation and comparative study of large-scale changes in seasonal cy-cling of both land surface temperature and plant growth. Our results have shown trends in-dicating a marked increased towards overall plant productivity by ~3% from 1982 to 2005, reduced trends in seasonal variation at low-mid latitudes by ~2%, increased trends in sea-sonal variations at mid-high latitudes by ~7%, and an earlier phase in northern terrestrial ecosystems (~1.1 days) in parallel with changes in the phasing of surface temperatures at northern latitudes over the 24 years in this study. These shifts in annual cycles of terrestrial vegetation appear to have a distinct geographical zonality and are dependent upon latitudinal changes in climatic variables. More conspicuous changes in overall vegetation productivity and the seasonal phase of ecosystems have been observed in Eurasia compared to North America, largely because of a more rapid rise in temperature. Our results state that changing climate boosts plant growth at northern latitudes, but also alters the phase and seasonal variations of the annual cycle of terrestrial ecosystems.