Exploration of the extension of two lava tubes,faults and dikes using very low frequency-electromagnetic technique in NE Jordan

The very low frequency-electromagnetic (VLF-EM) technique was used to delineate two sub-parallel lava tubes, faults and dikes in Umm El-Quttein area, NE Jordan. The investigation of the lava tubes was conducted through 22 VLF-EM profiles across lava strike; the length of profiles ranged from 700 to 1700 m. The lava tubes outcrop at two sites: Azzam cave and Al-Howa tunnel, characterized by slightly weathered basalt, columnar joints and fissure zones; qualitative interpretation of Fraser and Karous-Hjelt maps differentiate those zones as linear, elongated and circular anomalous zones. The 2-D tipper inversion of VLF-EM data and resistivity imaging had the potential to screen out three anomalous zones of likely resistivity contrast: the lava tube body with resistivity over 2500 Θ·m, the fractured zones with resistivity less than 500 Θ·m, and the host vesicular basalt with resistivity of 1500 Θ·m. The strike of lava tubes varied from SW to NE direction with depth less than 20 m and width from 10 to 30 m.     

基于交叉梯度交替结构约束的二维地震走时与全通道直流电阻率联合反演

在利用不同的地球物理勘探方法对地下复杂介质成像时,因观测系统的非完备性及数据本身对某些岩石物性的不敏感性,单独成像的结果存在较大的不确定性和不一致性.对于地震体波走时成像与直流电阻率成像,均面临着成像阴影区问题.对于地震走时成像,地震射线对低速区域覆盖较差形成阴影区,造成低速区域分辨率降低.对于电阻率成像,电场线在高阻区域分布较少,造成高阻区域分辨率较低.为了提高地下介质成像的精度,Gallado和Meju(2003)提出了基于交叉梯度结构约束的联合地球物理成像方法.在要求不同的物性模型拟合各自对应的数据同时,模型之间的结构要求一致,即交叉梯度趋于零.为了更有效地实现基于交叉梯度的结构约束,我们提出了一种新的交替结构约束的联合反演流程,即交替反演不同的数据而且在反演一种数据时要求对应的模型与另一个模型结构一致.新的算法能够更容易地把单独的反演系统耦合在一起,而且也更容易建立结构约束和数据拟合之间的平衡.基于新的联合反演流程,我们测试了基于交叉梯度结构约束的二维跨孔地震走时和直流电阻率联合成像.合成数据测试表明,我们提出的交替结构约束流程能够很好地实现基于交叉梯度结构约束的联合成像.与单独成像结果相比,地震走时和全通道电阻率联合成像更可靠地确定了速度和电阻率异常.     

地震监测中的电阻率层析技术

将电阻率层析技术应用于地震监测,由视电阻率值重建出介质的真电阻率图像,取得了较好效果.在宝坻台和昌黎台设立的两个试验点上于1998年4月14日ML5.0和ML4.4唐山两次地震前的6天左右层析图像出现了明显的异常变化:宝坻台的电阻率图像一改通常的在平稳背景上叠加小量随机变化的特点,出现了一种有序性特征的新图样;昌黎台也出现了反差加大、高低阻区集中分布的有序性特征.上述异常图样均在震后消失.层析图像在震前出现的熵值降低可能是这次地震活动的前兆.地层导电结构和孔隙度的变化,是引起电阻率异常的直接原因.研究表明,常规的单一极距的视电阻率测量之所以对真电阻率的变化不敏感且丧失空间分辨能力,是由于该物理量同时具有积分值和位函数这两个固有特征所决定的.在地震监测中,改造现行观测系统,引入层析成像,是发展技术的方向.     

On the Performance of Pilot-Point Based Hydraulic Tomography with a Geophysical a Priori Model

We present a novel method to estimate the hydraulic and storage properties of a heterogeneous aquifer system using pilot-point-based hydraulic tomography (HT) inversion in conjunction with a geophysical a priori model. The a priori model involved a soil stratification obtained by combining electrical resistivity tomography inversion and field data from hydrogeological experiments. Pilot-point densities were assigned according to the stratification, which also constrained aquifer parameters during HT inversion. The forward groundwater flow model, HydroGeoSphere, was supplied to the parameter-estimation tool, PEST, to perform HT inversion. The performance of our method was evaluated on a hypothetical, two-dimensional, multi-layered, granitic aquifer system representative of those commonly occurring in the Kandi region in Telangana. Inversion results were compared using two commonly adopted methods of modeling parameter-heterogeneity: (1) using piece-wise zones of property values obtained from geostatistical interpolation of local-scale estimates; and (2) HT inversion starting from a homogeneous parameter field with a uniform distribution of pilot-points. Performances of the inverted models were evaluated by conducting independent pumping tests and statistical analyses (using a Taylor diagram) of the model-to-measurement discrepancies in drawdowns. Our results showed that using the aforementioned geophysical a priori model could improve the parameter-estimation process.     

2D and 3D resistivity inversion of Schlumberger vertical electrical soundings in Wadi El Natrun,Egypt: A case study

The Wadi El Natrun area is characterized by a very complicated geological and hydrogeological system. 45 vertical electrical soundings (Schlumberger array) were measured in the study area to elucidate the peculiarity of this unique regime, specifically the nature of waterless area. 2D and 3D resistivity inversion based on the finite element technique and regularization method were applied on the data set. 2D and 3D model resolution was investigated through the use of the Depth and Volume of Investigation Indexes. A very good matching was found between the zones of high resistivity, the waterless area, and the non-productive wells. The low resistivity zones (corresponding to Lower Pliocene clay) were also identified. The middle resistivity fresh water aquifer zones were recognized. Available results can assist in the aquifer management by selecting the most productive zone of groundwater.     

Electrical earth resistivity surveying for delineating the characteristics of ground water in a semi‐arid region in the Khanasser Valley,northern Syria

A resistivity survey is conducted in Khanasser Valley, a semi‐arid region in northern Syria, to delineate the characteristics of ground water affected by the salt‐water intrusion related to Al‐Jaboul Sabkha. Existing wells were used to measure salinity and conductivity of water samplings. Vertical electrical sounding was carried out near the existing wells. The combination of resistivity and hydrogeological data enables the establishment of empirical relationships between earth resistivity, water resistivity, and the amount of total dissolved solids. These relationships are then used in order to derive salinity maps for electrode spacings of 70, 100, and 150 m. The distribution of fresh, brackish and salt‐water zones and their variations in space along two longitudinal profiles (LP1 and LP2) are established through converting subsurface depth–resistivity models into different ground‐water areas. The constructed ground‐water area maps allow interfaces between different water zones to be determined. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Imaging weak zones in the foundation using frequency domain attenuation tomography

Cross-hole imaging method using Time Domain (TD) and Frequency Domain (FD) parts of cross-hole radar tomography data acquired using Step Frequency Ground Penetrating Radar (SFGPR) was implemented. This method was adopted for imaging foundation of a dam to check if the foundation was free of geological weak zones. The dam site is characterised by massive and jointed-phyllites associated with major and minor shears. The cross-hole radar tomography data was acquired in the frequency bandwidth of 250 MHz, from the deepest level gallery up to a depth of 40 m in the foundation. In TD, first arrival time and amplitudes of radio waves were inverted using Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique (SIRT) resulting in velocity and attenuation tomograms. The tomograms showed nearly uniform velocity or attenuation structure in the respective tomographic plane. Subsequently, cross-hole radar tomography data was analysed in FD for a variation of spectrum-amplitude at different frequencies. Amplitudes picked at each single frequency were then inverted using SIRT for obtaining frequency domain attenuation tomogram (FDAT). The FDAT clearly showed presence of anomalous high attenuation zones in the depth range of 23–33 m of the tomographic plane. The anomalous zones in the attenuation tomogram are weak zones in the foundation. To validate the above observations, cross-hole seismic tomography was also done in the same boreholes. Cross-hole seismic tomography results showed low velocity (p-wave) zones around the same location corresponding to the high attenuation zone in FDAT, bringing the dormant weak zone to light. This enabled fine-tuning of the reinforcement design and strengthening the weak zone. This paper discusses the cross-hole radar tomography imaging method, the results of its application in imaging weak zones in the foundation and the comparison of cross-hole radar tomography results (in TD and FD) with the cross-hole seismic tomography results.     

An application of three-dimensional electrical resistivity imaging for the detection of an underground waste-water system

A 3D electrical resistivity imaging survey is presented in this paper. The objective was to investigate an underground wastewater system at the University of Malaya, Malaysia. Apparent resistivity data were collected along ten parallel lines using a Wenner-Schlumberger configuration; electrode cables were oriented in the x-direction with 3 m spacing. Roll-along measurements using a line spacing of 3 m were carried out covering a grid of 20 × 10 electrodes. All data sets were merged into a single data file in order to perform a 3D inversion. Two different 3D least squares algorithms, based on the robust inversion method and the smoothness-constrained technique, were used for the inversion of the apparent resistivity data. Both the horizontal and vertical extents of the anomalous zones found by inversion are displayed. The results indicate the superiority of the robust inversion method over the smoothness-constrained technique at this site. The results are in sufficient accordance with previously known information about the investigation area. The results show that 3D electrical resistivity imaging surveys, in combination with an appropriate 3D inversion method, can be highly useful for engineering and archaeological investigations as well as for environmental applications.     

Out‐of‐plane effects in 2D borehole‐to‐surface resistivity tomography and applications in mineral exploration

In this paper, we discuss the effects of anomalous out‐of‐plane bodies in two‐dimensional (2D) borehole‐to‐surface electrical resistivity tomography with numerical resistivity modelling and synthetic inversion tests. The results of the two groups of synthetic resistivity model tests illustrate that anomalous bodies out of the plane of interest have an effect on two‐dimensional inversion and that the degree of influence of out‐of‐plane body on inverted images varies. The different influences are derived from two cases. One case is different resistivity models with the same electrode array, and the other case is the same resistivity model with different electrode arrays. Qualitative interpretation based on the inversion tests shows that we cannot find a reasonable electrode array to determine the best inverse solution and reveal the subsurface resistivity distribution for all types of geoelectrical models. Because of the three‐dimensional effect arising from neighbouring anomalous bodies, the qualitative interpretation of inverted images from the two‐dimensional inversion of electrical resistivity tomography data without prior information can be misleading. Two‐dimensional inversion with drilling data can decrease the three‐dimensional effect. We employed two‐ and three‐dimensional borehole‐to‐surface electrical resistivity tomography methods with a pole–pole array and a bipole–bipole array for mineral exploration at Abag Banner and Hexigten Banner in Inner Mongolia, China. Different inverse schemes were carried out for different cases. The subsurface resistivity distribution obtained from the two‐dimensional inversion of the field electrical resistivity tomography data with sufficient prior information, such as drilling data and other non‐electrical data, can better describe the actual geological situation. When there is not enough prior information to carry out constrained two‐dimensional inversion, the three‐dimensional electrical resistivity tomography survey is the better choice.     

Combined three-dimensional electric and seismic tomography study on the Åknes rockslide in western Norway

We present a combined 3-D geoelectric and seismic tomography study conducted on the large Åknes rockslide in western Norway. Movements on the slope are strongly influenced by water infiltration, such that the hydrogeological regime is considered as a critical factor affecting the slope stability. The aim of our combined geophysical study was to identify and visualize the main shallow tension fractures and to determine their effect on hydraulic processes by comparing the geophysical results with information from borehole logging and tracer tests. To resolve the complex subsurface conditions of the highly fractured rock mass, a three-dimensional set-up was chosen for our seismic survey. To map the water distribution within the rock mass, a pattern of nine intersecting 2-D geoelectric profiles covered the complete unstable slope. Six of them that crossed the seismic survey area were considered as a single data set in a 3-D inversion. For both methods, smoothing-constraint inversion algorithms were used, and the forward calculations and parameterizations were based on unstructured triangular meshes. A pair of parallel shallow low-velocity anomalies (< 1400 m/s) observed in the final seismic tomogram was immediately underlain by two anomalies with resistivities <13 kΩm in the resistivity tomogram. In combination with borehole logging results, the low-velocity and resistivity anomalies could be associated with the drained and water-filled part of the tension fractures, respectively. There were indications from impeller flowmeter measurements and tracer tests that such tension fractures intersected several other water-filled fractures and were responsible for distinct changes of the main groundwater flow paths.     

Spatial distribution of resistivity in the hydrogeological systems,and identification of the catchment area in the Rharb basin,Morocco / Répartition spatiale de la résistivité dans les systèmes hydrogéologiques et détection des zones de captages dans le bassin du Rharb,Maroc

Abstract

Abstract Geophysical results obtained in the Rharb basin, Morocco are reported. Correlations between hydrogeological well logs reveal several water-bearing Plio-Quaternary units resting on a substrate of blue marls. Geo-electrical borehole analyses were interpreted using bi-logarithmic diagrams which indicate the permeable layers of the aquifer and also its basement. Resistivity data from NE–SW and NW–SE electrical sections allow definition of the permeable/impermeable levels, and identification of ?ditches? that may be favourable sectors for hydrogeological exploitation. Resistivity anomalies were investigated by analysing maps of resistivity at 400 and 1000 m AB. Anomalies identified in the Rharb basin are related to the thickening of the permeable bodies (sand, limestone, sandstone deposits). In the coastal zone (AB = 1000 m), there is a strong decrease of the resistivity gradient (35–10 Ω m), which is probably linked to marine intrusion. Electrical anomalies allow detection of the water-bearing zones notably in the western and southwestern parts of the Rharb basin.     

Crustal electric structure of Haiyuan arcuate tectonic region in the northeastern margin of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, China

Through the analysis and 2-D inversion for the 5 profiles in Haiyuan arcuate tectonic region (105°～107°E,36°～37.5°N) in the northeastern margin of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, we have obtained the electric structure within a range of 160 km in width (east-west) and 60 km in depth in the studied area. The results show that the crustal electric structure can be divided into 6 sections, corresponding respectively to Xiji basin (Ⅰ), Xihuashan-Nanhuashan uplift (Ⅱ), Xingrenbu-Haiyuan basin (Ⅲ), Zhongwei-Qingshuihe basin (Ⅳ), Zhongning-Hongsibu basin (Ⅴ) and west-margin zone of Ordos (Ⅵ) from the southwest to the northeast. The crustal electric structure is characterized by a broom-shaped pattern, which scatters to the northwest and shrinks to the southeast. The structures in the top part of Haiyuan arcuate tectonic region are complete and large, however, they diminish from the arc top to the northwest and southeast ends. In the depth from 0 km to 10 km, the resistivity is high in the sections Ⅱ and Ⅵ, but relatively low in the other four sections, showing a similar pattern of basin depression. The electrical basement in the section Ⅲ is the deepest, displaying a "dustpan" shape that is deep in the southwest and shallow in the northeast. A series of discontinuous zones with high conductivity exist in the middle-lower crust in Haiyuan arcuate tectonic region, which is possibly related to the moderate and strong earthquakes in the region. The resistivity distribution in the focal area of the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake is significantly heterogeneous with an obviously high conductivity zone near the hypocenter regime.     

3D inversion of DC data using artificial neural networks

In this paper, we investigate the applicability of artificial neural networks in inverting three-dimensional DC resistivity imaging data. The model used to produce synthetic data for training the artificial neural network (ANN) system was a homogeneous medium of resistivity 100 Ωm with an embedded anomalous body of resistivity 1000 Ωm. The different sizes for anomalous body were selected and their location was changed to different positions within the homogeneous model mesh elements. The 3D data set was generated using a finite element forward modeling code through standard 3D modeling software. We investigated different learning paradigms in the training process of the neural network. Resilient propagation was more efficient than any other paradigm. We studied the effect of the data type used on neural network inversion and found that the use of location and the apparent resistivity of data points as the input and corresponding true resistivity as the output of networks produces satisfactory results. We also investigated the effect of the training data pool volume on the inversion properties. We created several synthetic data sets to study the interpolation and extrapolation properties of the ANN. The range of 100–1000 Ωm was divided into six resistivity values as the background resistivity and different resistivity values were also used for the anomalous body. Results from numerous neural network tests indicate that the neural network possesses sufficient interpolation and extrapolation abilities with the selected volume of training data. The trained network was also applied on a real field dataset, collected by a pole-pole array using a square grid (8 ×8) with a 2-m electrode spacing. The inversion results demonstrate that the trained network was able to invert three-dimensional electrical resistivity imaging data. The interpreted results of neural network also agree with the known information about the investigation area.     

Mapping of thin sandy aquifers by using high resolution reflection seismics and 2-D electrical tomography

Electrical tomography, which gives good results even in fairly complex geological environments, has given a new lease of life to electrical methods in hydrogeological surveys. Nevertheless, a rapid decline in resolution with increasing depth remains the main problem of the electrical methods. In the Pannonian basin in Croatia, at a test area, combining both electrical tomography and seismic reflection methods provides data that better constrain the lithological and hydrogeological model of the subsurface.Electrical tomography revealed a rather thick packet of sediments with increased resistivity at depths of 40–100 m. Using the electrical forward modelling, the existence of two different hydrogeological models was shown. The first model presupposes a reasonably homogeneous packet of sandy clays or clayey sands, and the other model presupposes the alternation between layers of clays and sands. From the hydrogeological point of view, the second model is perspective, but unfortunately, the use of electrical tomography alone does not allow the ambiguity to be resolved. The separation of these two models became possible using seismic reflection. Three seismic environments were isolated from the seismic profile treated, and the strongest reflections were discovered in the first seismic environment, which covers the depths from 40 to 100 m. It was determined that the second model is more acceptable, because these reflections are caused by lithological changes, that is, the alternations of sands and clays. The interpretation is consistent with exploratory borehole data. The conclusion is that electrical tomography gives data concerning the sediment lithology up to depths of 40 m, but at greater depths combined interpretation of electrical and seismic data constrains the subsurface model better.     

井间电阻率层析成象的几个问题研究

井间电阻率层析成象是一种较新的高精度电法勘探方法，尚有许多问题需要探讨。本文针对平滑度约束反演算法，研究了平滑因子及迭代次数对成象结果的影响，给出了约束条件的施加方法。     

Geophysical techniques to aquifer locating and monitoring for industrial zones in North Hanoi, Vietnam

Geophysical methods were applied for hydrogeological targets in many countries including Vietnam. This paper presents results of using complex geophysical techniques as well as 2D electrical resistivity imaging (ERI), vertical electrical sounding (VES), very low frequency (VLF), and seismic refraction for geological structure investigation for locating the aquifers and assessing the hydrogeological conditions for groundwater potential in industrial zones of North Hanoi, Vietnam. The locations of two aquifers are determined by their depth and thickness on the basis of resistivity and seismic velocity values which were proved by stratifications of three boreholes to 40–60 m of depth on the study area. There are connections from surface water to shallow aquifer by hydraulic windows, as follows from VLF data. The deeper aquifer can be considered as a potential groundwater supply, but the water level is descending in time, as shown by hydrological monitoring. However, with careful use and by reducing sources of pollution, groundwater can continue to be an important natural resource for future.     

Inversion of resistivity in Magnetic Resonance Sounding

Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS, or Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance - SNMR) is used for groundwater exploration and aquifer characterization. Since this is an electromagnetic method, the excitation magnetic field depends on the resistivity of the subsurface. Therefore, the resistivity has to be taken into account in the inversion: either as a priori information or as an inversion parameter during the inversion process, as introduced in the presented paper. Studies with synthetic data show that water content and resistivity can be resolved for a low resistive aquifer even using only the amplitude of the MRS signal. However, the inversion result can be significantly improved using amplitude and phase of the MRS signal. The successful implementation of the inversion for field data shows that the resistivities derived from MRS are comparable to those from conventional geoelectric methods such as DC resistivity and transient electromagnetic. By having information about both the resistivity and the water content, MRS inversions give information about the quality of the water in the aquifer. This is of utmost interest in hydrogeological studies as this specific information cannot be determined solely by geoelectric measurements, due to the nonunique dependence of resistivity on water content and salinity.     

Two-Dimensional Magnetotelluric Modelling of Ore Deposits: Improvements in Model Constraints by Inclusion of Borehole Measurements

A combination of magnetotelluric (MT) measurements on the surface and in boreholes (without metal casing) can be expected to enhance resolution and reduce the ambiguity in models of electrical resistivity derived from MT surface measurements alone. In order to quantify potential improvement in inversion models and to aid design of electromagnetic (EM) borehole sensors, we considered two synthetic 2D models containing ore bodies down to 3000 m depth (the first with two dipping conductors in resistive crystalline host rock and the second with three mineralisation zones in a sedimentary succession exhibiting only moderate resistivity contrasts). We computed 2D inversion models from the forward responses based on combinations of surface impedance measurements and borehole measurements such as (1) skin-effect transfer functions relating horizontal magnetic fields at depth to those on the surface, (2) vertical magnetic transfer functions relating vertical magnetic fields at depth to horizontal magnetic fields on the surface and (3) vertical electric transfer functions relating vertical electric fields at depth to horizontal magnetic fields on the surface. Whereas skin-effect transfer functions are sensitive to the resistivity of the background medium and 2D anomalies, the vertical magnetic and electric field transfer functions have the disadvantage that they are comparatively insensitive to the resistivity of the layered background medium. This insensitivity introduces convergence problems in the inversion of data from structures with strong 2D resistivity contrasts. Hence, we adjusted the inversion approach to a three-step procedure, where (1) an initial inversion model is computed from surface impedance measurements, (2) this inversion model from surface impedances is used as the initial model for a joint inversion of surface impedances and skin-effect transfer functions and (3) the joint inversion model derived from the surface impedances and skin-effect transfer functions is used as the initial model for the inversion of the surface impedances, skin-effect transfer functions and vertical magnetic and electric transfer functions. For both synthetic examples, the inversion models resulting from surface and borehole measurements have higher similarity to the true models than models computed exclusively from surface measurements. However, the most prominent improvements were obtained for the first example, in which a deep small-sized ore body is more easily distinguished from a shallow main ore body penetrated by a borehole and the extent of the shadow zone (a conductive artefact) underneath the main conductor is strongly reduced. Formal model error and resolution analysis demonstrated that predominantly the skin-effect transfer functions improve model resolution at depth below the sensors and at distance of \(\sim \) 300–1000 m laterally off a borehole, whereas the vertical electric and magnetic transfer functions improve resolution along the borehole and in its immediate vicinity. Furthermore, we studied the signal levels at depth and provided specifications of borehole magnetic and electric field sensors to be developed in a future project. Our results suggest that three-component SQUID and fluxgate magnetometers should be developed to facilitate borehole MT measurements at signal frequencies above and below 1 Hz, respectively.     

Crustal Structure of the Southern Korean Peninsula from Seismic Waves Generated by Large Explosions in 2002 and 2004

In order to investigate the velocity structure of the southern part of the Korean peninsula, seismic refraction profiles were obtained along a 294-km WNW-ESE line and a 335-km NNW-SSE line in 2002 and 2004, respectively. Seismic waves were generated by detonating 500–1000 kg explosives in drill holes at depths of 80–150 m. The seismic signals were recorded by portable seismometers at nominal intervals of 1.5–1.7 km. Separate velocity tomograms were derived from first arrival times using a series expansion method of travel-time inversion. The raypaths indicate several mid-crust interfaces including those at approximate depths of 2–3, 15–17, and 22 km. The Moho discontinuity with refraction velocity of 7.8 to 8.4 km/s has a maximum depth of 37–39 km under the southern central portion of the peninsula. The Moho becomes shallower as the Yellow Sea and the East Sea are approached on the west and east coasts of the peninsula, respectively. The depth of the 7.6 km/s velocity contour varies from 29.4 km to 36.5 km. The discrepancy in depth between the seismological Moho and the interpreted critically refracting interface may result from the presence of a gradual transition between the crust and mantle. The velocity tomograms show particular crustal structures including (1) the existence of an over 70-km wide low-velocity zone centered at 6–7 km depth under the Okchon fold belt and Ryeongnam massif, (2) existence of high-velocity materials under the Gyeongsang basin, and (3) the downward extension of the Yeongdong fault to depths greater than 10 km.