行星科学与深空探测（二）--行星科学研究的国际现状和发展趋势

根据太阳系行星物质的主要性态和大小,人们通常将其分成行星（包括类地行星和类木行星）、卫星、小行星、彗星和流星体。类地行星包括水星、金星、地球和火星;类木行星包括木星、土星、天王星和海王星;质量较大的小行星和卫星的内部结构与类地行星相似,质量较小的小行星和卫星以及流星体主要由岩石和金属组成;彗星是含有太阳系形成时期物质且没有经过太多物理和化学演化的冰态小天体。     

金星异常自转的一种可能形成机制

金星的缓慢逆向自转与众不同,其形成机制曾吸引许多研究者的注意.从太阳引力场中行星际物质径向分布的不均匀性假设出发,推导并计算了行星际物质对类地行星自转的影响.结果表明,金星在形成初期可以具有典型的快速正向自转状态,在行星际物质作用下,自转连续变慢,在形成大约10~9 yr后,自转反向并逐渐趋向稳定;对其它类地行星计算的结果也比较合理,水星的缓慢自转也得到自然的解释.     

2021年2月重要天象预告

相比1月,2月的天象略显逊色。夜幕降临后,冬季星空依然是前半夜的主角,大家可以借着春节假期拍摄一些著名的冬季深空天体,如猎户座大星云、玫瑰星云等。行星方面,水星于本月8日下合日,与太阳的角距离很近,无法观测;金星与太阳之间的角距离也在逐日减少;土星和木星运行得很慢,它们在1月底刚过合日,2月份与太阳的角距离还是很近,难以观测。肉眼可见的5颗行星中,只有火星前半夜在西南方天空,午夜下落。     

2000—2049年行星天象（一）

本文给出 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 4 9年行星天象的一部分 ,包括水星、金星的东、西大距 ,留及上、下合日 ;金星最亮和最接近地球 ;外行星冲日、最接近地球、合日、留 ;地球和外行星过远近日点计1 5个表     

级式分裂是星云环形成的一个明显特征

根据角动量守恒定律,笔者通过计算,定量的论证了行量、卫星是经过星云环形成的。在此基础上,进一步探讨了星云环的分布和行星、卫星质量分布的对应关系,得出了星去环形成的一个明显特征——级式分裂.这对行星、卫星的形成过程及其质量分布的规律性是一个新的认识,并为今后寻找太阳系新的天体以及分析宇宙飞行的安全性区域提出几点粗浅看法.     

2012年3月重要天象预告

3月天象的主角无疑是几颗经典行星。水星、金星作为昏星将出现在傍晚的西方天空,先后达到东大距。     

星云中的行星？——行星状星云研究新进展

最近,罗切斯特大学的天文学家宣布了他们关于行星状星云的研究新进展,结果显示,围绕星云中心恒星公转的伴星甚至是大质量行星,可能对那些星云奇特外貌及物质组分的成因至关重要。     

从零开始

太阳系八颗行星中金星和水星绕太阳公转的轨道在地球公转轨道的内圈,称为内行星。在地球上观测,内行星总是不离太阳左右,它们有几个月时间出现在太阳东侧,另外几个月出现在太阳西侧,夜半时分是看不到内行星的踪影的。当金星或水星运行到同太阳正好在同一个方向的时候称为合日,与地球各在太阳一侧的称为上合,金星或水星正好在地球与太阳之间叫下合,合日前后是看不到它们的。     

2012年1O月行星出没图（北纬40°）

上图显示每日日落到次E1日出之间的五颗行星出没状态及观测条件,包括晨昏蒙影时刻,水星与金星的出没时刻,火星、木星与土星的出没及中天时刻,以及月亮出没状态。横坐标为地方平时,纵坐标为日期。图中外侧的两条纵向条带表示天文晨昏蒙影,中间交替的横向条带表示夜间有无月光。     

2012年5月行星出没图（北纬40°）

上图显示每日日落到次日日出之间的五颗行星出没状态及观测条件,包括晨昏蒙影时刻,水星与金星的出没时刻,火星、木星与土星的出没及中天时刻,以及月亮出没状态。横坐标为地方平时,纵坐标为日期。图中外侧的两条纵向条带表示天文晨昏蒙影,中间交替的横向条带表示夜间有无月光。     

The role of rotation in the evolution of dynamo-generated magnetic fields in Super Earths

Planetary magnetic fields could impact the evolution of planetary atmospheres and have a role in the determination of the required conditions for the emergence and evolution of life (planetary habitability). We study here the role of rotation in the evolution of dynamo-generated magnetic fields in massive Earth-like planets, Super Earths (1–10 M_⊕). Using the most recent thermal evolution models of Super Earths (Gaidos, E., Conrad, C.P., Manga, M., Hernlund, J. [2010]. Astrophys. J. 718, 596–609; Tachinami, C., Senshu, H., Ida, S. [2011]. Astrophys. J. 726, 70) and updated scaling laws for convection-driven dynamos, we predict the evolution of the local Rossby number. This quantity is one of the proxies for core magnetic field regime, i.e. non-reversing dipolar, reversing dipolar and multipolar. We study the dependence of the local Rossby number and hence the core magnetic field regime on planetary mass and rotation rate. Previous works have focused only on the evolution of core magnetic fields assuming rapidly rotating planets, i.e. planets in the dipolar regime. In this work we go further, including the effects of rotation in the evolution of planetary magnetic field regime and obtaining global constraints to the existence of intense protective magnetic fields in rapidly and slowly rotating Super Earths. We find that the emergence and continued existence of a protective planetary magnetic field is not only a function of planetary mass but also depend on rotation rate. Low-mass Super Earths (M ? 2 M_⊕) develop intense surface magnetic fields but their lifetimes will be limited to 2–4 Gyrs for rotational periods larger than 1–4 days. On the other hand and also in the case of slowly rotating planets, more massive Super Earths (M ? 2 M_⊕) have weak magnetic fields but their dipoles will last longer. Finally we analyze tidally locked Super Earths inside and outside the habitable zone of GKM stars. Using the results obtained here we develop a classification of Super Earths based on the rotation rate and according to the evolving properties of dynamo-generated planetary magnetic fields.     

The phase diagram of water and the magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune

The interior of giant planets can give valuable information on formation and evolution processes of planetary systems. However, the interior and evolution of Uranus and Neptune is still largely unknown. In this paper, we compare water-rich three-layer structure models of these planets with predictions of shell structures derived from magnetic field models. Uranus and Neptune have unusual non-dipolar magnetic fields contrary to that of the Earth. Extensive three-dimensional simulations of Stanley and Bloxham (Stanley, S., Bloxham, J. [2004]. Nature 428, 151-153) have indicated that such a magnetic field is generated in a rather thin shell of at most 0.3 planetary radii located below the H/He rich outer envelope and a conducting core that is fluid but stably stratified. Interior models rely on equation of state data for the planetary materials which have usually considerable uncertainties in the high-pressure domain. We present interior models for Uranus and Neptune that are based on ab initio equation of state data for hydrogen, helium, and water as the representative of all heavier elements or ices. Based on a detailed high-pressure phase diagram of water we can specify the region where superionic water should occur in the inner envelope. This superionic region correlates well with the location of the stably-stratified region as found in the dynamo models. Hence we suggest a significant impact of the phase diagram of water on the generation of the magnetic fields in Uranus and Neptune.     

内日冕的绿线强度分布研究

日冕是太阳大气活动的关键区域,是日地空间天气的源头.受观测限制,对日冕低层大气等离子体结构和磁场状态的研究非常欠缺,国际上对于可见光波段日冕低层大气的亮度分层研究很少.利用丽江日冕仪YOGIS(Yunnan Green-line Imaging System)的日冕绿线(Fe_ⅩⅣ5303?)观测资料,对内日冕区域(1.03R_☉-1.25R_☉,R_☉表示太阳半径)亮结构及其中冕环进行了有效的强度衰减分析.对亮结构的强度在太阳径向高度上进行了指数衰减拟合,比较这些拟合结果发现所得到的静态内冕环的衰减指数在一固定值附近.然后将比较明显的冕环提取出来,通过对不同高度的绿线强度进行指数拟合,得出的衰减指数与亮结构中也比较相近,这对进一步研究日冕中的各项物理参数演化提供了参考.     

Typical Velocities and Magnetic Field Strengths in Planetary Interiors

Recent studies of convection-driven dynamos in the outer core of the Earth have improved our understanding of the dynamical regime in fluid planetary cores. We consider the possible dynamical regimes in the cores of the Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, and hence we estimate the typical velocities and magnetic fields expected in their interiors. These estimates are in reasonable agreement with observations of the large-scale internal fields of those planets. We use the fully self-consistent anelastic MHD (magnetohydrodynamics) equations which have been developed for the Earth, while the details of similar systems for Jupiter and Saturn are specified here. The known heat and composition fluxes together with magnetic, Archimedean, and Coriolis force balance give us typical velocity, entropy, and composition strengths independent of the rather poorly known transport coefficients. Those turbulent diffusion and magnetic diffusion coefficients are also estimated from mixing length theory and compared with available numerical models and standard kinematic approaches.     

Planetary dynamos: effects of electrically conducting flows overlying turbulent regions of magnetic field generation

A fully three-dimensional, nonlinear, time-dependent, multi-layered spherical kinematic dynamo model is used to study the effect on the observable external magnetic field of flow in an electrically conducting layer above a spherical turbulent dynamo region in which the α effect generates the magnetic field. It is shown that the amplitude and structure of an observable planetary magnetic field are largely determined by the magnitude and structure of the flow in the overlying layer. It is also shown that a strong-field planetary dynamo can be readily produced by the effect of an electrically conducting flow layer at the top of a convective core. The overlying layer and the underlying convective region constitute a magnetically strongly coupled system. Such overlying layers might exist at the top of the Earth's core due to chemical or thermal causes, in the cores of other terrestrial planets for similar reasons, and in Saturn due to the differentiation of helium from hydrogen. An electrically conducting and differentially rotating layer could exist above the metallic hydrogen region in Jupiter and affect the jovian magnetic field similar to the overlying layers in other planets. Lateral temperature gradients resulting in thermal winds drive the flow in the overlying layers. All planetary magnetic fields could be maintained by similar turbulent convective dynamos in the field-generation regions of planets with the differences among observable magnetic fields due to different circulations in the overlying electrically conducting layers.     

行星和太阳内部的磁流体力学

许多行星 (如木卫三 ,水星 ,地球 ,木星和土星 )和恒星 (如太阳 )具有内部磁场。对这些磁场的存在和变化的解释对行星科学家和天体物理学家是一个巨大的挑战。本文试图总结行星和恒星的导电流体内部磁流体力学研究的新近发展和困难。一般由热对流驱动的流动通过磁流体力学过程产生并维持在行星和恒星中的磁场。在行星中磁流体力学过程强烈地受到转动 ,磁场和球几何位型的综合影响。其动力学的关键方面涉及科里奥利力和洛伦兹力间的相互作用。在太阳中其流线 ,即处于对流层的薄的剪切流层在太阳的磁流体力学过程中扮演了一个基本的角色 ,并由之产生了 1 1年的太阳黑子周期。本文也给出了一个新的非线性三维太阳发电机模型。     

On the protection of extrasolar Earth-like planets around K/M stars against galactic cosmic rays

Previous studies have shown that extrasolar Earth-like planets in close-in habitable zones around M-stars are weakly protected against galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), leading to a strongly increased particle flux to the top of the planetary atmosphere. Two main effects were held responsible for the weak shielding of such an exoplanet: (a) For a close-in planet, the planetary magnetic moment is strongly reduced by tidal locking. Therefore, such a close-in extrasolar planet is not protected by an extended magnetosphere. (b) The small orbital distance of the planet exposes it to a much denser stellar wind than that prevailing at larger orbital distances. This dense stellar wind leads to additional compression of the magnetosphere, which can further reduce the shielding efficiency against GCRs. In this work, we analyse and compare the effect of (a) and (b), showing that the stellar wind variation with orbital distance has little influence on the cosmic ray shielding. Instead, the weak shielding of M star planets can be attributed to their small magnetic moment. We further analyse how the planetary mass and composition influence the planetary magnetic moment, and thus modify the cosmic ray shielding efficiency. We show that more massive planets are not necessarily better protected against galactic cosmic rays, but that the planetary bulk composition can play an important role.     

Optimal dynamos in the cores of terrestrial exoplanets: Magnetic field generation and detectability

A potentially promising way to gain knowledge about the internal dynamics of extrasolar planets is by remote measurement of an intrinsic magnetic field. Strong planetary magnetic fields, maintained by internal dynamo action in an electrically conducting fluid layer, are helpful for shielding the upper atmosphere from stellar wind induced mass loss and retaining water over long (Gyr) time scales. Here we present a whole planet dynamo model that consists of three main components: an internal structure model with composition and layers similar to the Earth, an optimal mantle convection model that is designed to maximize the heat flow available to drive convective dynamo action in the core, and a scaling law to estimate the magnetic field intensity at the surface of a terrestrial exoplanet. We find that the magnetic field intensity at the core surface can be up to twice the present-day geomagnetic field intensity, while the magnetic moment varies by a factor of 20 over the models considered. Assuming electron cyclotron emission is produced from the interaction between the stellar wind and the exoplanet magnetic field we estimate the cyclotron frequencies around the ionospheric cutoff at 10 MHz with emission fluxes in the range 10⁻⁴-10⁻⁷ Jy, below the current detection threshold of radio telescopes. However, we propose that anomalous boosts and modulations to the magnetic field intensity and cyclotron emission may allow for their detection in the future.     

On oligarchic growth of planets in protoplanetary disks

In this paper we present a new semianalytical model of oligarchic growth of planets considering a distribution of planetesimal sizes, fragmentation of planetesimals in mutual collisions, sublimation of ices through the snow line, random velocities out of equilibrium and merging of planetary embryos. We show that the presence of several planetary embryos growing simultaneously at different locations in the protoplanetary disk affects the whole accretion history, specially for the innermost planets. The results presented here clearly indicate the relevance of considering a distribution of planetesimal sizes. Fragmentation occurring during planetesimal-planetesimal collisions represent only a marginal effect in shaping the surface density of solid material in the protoplanetary disc.     

Induced magnetic field effects at planet Mercury

At Mercury's surface external magnetic field contributions caused by magnetospheric current systems play a much more important role than at Earth. They are subjected to temporal variations and therefore will induce currents in the large conductive iron core. These currents give rise to an additional magnetic field superposing the planetary field. We present a model to estimate the size of the induced fields using a magnetospheric magnetic field model with time-varying magnetopause position. For the Hermean interior we assume a two-layer conductivity distribution. We found out that about half of the surface magnetic field is due to magnetospheric or induced currents. The induced fields achieve 7-12% of the mean surface magnetic intensity of the internal planetary field, depending on the core size. The magnetic field was also modeled for a satellite moving along a polar orbit in the Hermean magnetosphere, showing the importance of a careful separation of the magnetic field measurements.