北京一次污染过程气溶胶光学特性及辐射效应

利用地面激光雷达、太阳光度计观测反演气溶胶光学特性参数,结合PM_2.5观测数据,分析了2018年1月25—28日北京一次完整污染过程中气溶胶光学特性变化。基于观测数据,利用短波辐射传输模式计算了不同程度污染日,晴空背景下气溶胶对辐射加热率的改变程度。结果表明:清洁日（25日）,PM_2.5日平均质量浓度为19.00 μg·m-3,440 nm气溶胶光学厚度为0.13,单次散射反照率为0.87,整层气溶胶消光系数低于0.10 km-1,短波辐射均为增温效应;污染期间（26—27日）,PM_2.5日平均质量浓度为83.21 μg·m-3,气溶胶光学厚度为2.48,气溶胶散射能力增强,单次散射反照率达到0.94,气溶胶主要消光层厚度提升至3.00 km高度,消光系数平均值为0.43 km-1,气溶胶在垂直方向的变化导致气溶胶中上层（1.50~3.00 km高度）加热作用强烈,短波辐射加热率平均值达到13.89 K·d-1,而低层（1.50 km高度以内）加热作用较弱,加热率平均值仅为0.99 K·d-1。气溶胶散射能力增强导致加热作用减弱,污染日加热率对于气溶胶散射能力变化更敏感。     

Capturing the Atlantic cold tongue and coastal upwelling in an intermediate-level ocean model coupled to a regional climate model

Coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation models are known to have difficulties simulating the cold tongue in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Here a regional climate model coupled to an intermediate-level mixed layer ocean model with Ekman dynamics is developed and used to better understand the seasonal evolution of the equatorial Atlantic cold tongue and upwelling off western Africa. Parameterization improvements are made to an earlier version of the ocean model to account for the variations in temperature and shearing stress at the base of the mixed layer. 90-km resolution sensitivity tests demonstrate that the development of the equatorial Atlantic cold tongue in the boreal spring/summer is captured only if seasonal variations in the temperature at the base of the ocean mixed layer are included. The development of cold temperatures off the northwest African coast in the late boreal winter/spring is found to be primarily associated with the net radiation balance as shortwave warming of the mixed layer is relatively low while latent cooling is relatively high yielding a net cooling of mixed layer temperatures, consistent with other studies. The westward extension of the Atlantic cold tongue is primarily due to the horizontal advection of cool water from the South Atlantic African coast. This coastal cooling is associated with vertical diffusion and vertical entrainment, while the vertical entrainment has a secondary and more localized role over the equatorial Atlantic.     

Diagnosis of the marine low cloud simulation in the NCAR community earth system model (CESM) and the NCEP global forecast system (GFS)-modular ocean model v4 (MOM4) coupled model

We present a diagnostic analysis of the marine low cloud climatology simulated by two state-of-the-art coupled atmosphere–ocean models: the National Center for Atmospheric Research community earth system model version 1 (CESM1) and the National Center for Environmental Predictions global forecasting system-modular ocean model version 4 (GFS-MOM4) coupled model. In the CESM1, the coastal stratocumulus (Sc)-topped planetary boundary layers (PBLs) in the subtropical Eastern Pacific are well-simulated but the climatological transition from Sc to shallow cumulus (Cu) is too abrupt and occurs too close to the coast. By contrast, in the GFS-MOM4 the coastal Sc amount and PBL depth are severely underestimated while the transition from Sc to shallow Cu is “delayed” and offshore Sc cover is too extensive in the subtropical Eastern Pacific. We discuss the possible connections between these differences in the simulations and differences in the parameterizations of shallow convection and boundary layer turbulence in the two models.     

Late Pleistocene variations in Antarctic sea ice I: effect of orbital insolation changes

The effect of orbitally induced insolation changes on Antarctic sea-ice cover are examined by means of a dynamic-thermodynamic seaice model. Results are compared with modified CLIMAP 18 000 B.P. sea-ice reconstructions. Calculations suggest that changes in insolation receipt had only a minor influence on Pleistocene sea-ice distributions. The small response can be explained by a number of factors: albedo effects reduce the insolation perturbation at the surface; some of the shortwave radiation entering the ocean contributes to bottom ablation rather than lateral melting; the radiation perturbation at the upper surface of the ice must go to warming the surface to the melting point before melting ensues; and, finally, the relatively high heat capacity of open water dampens the surface temperature response to altered seasonal insolation perturbations.     

Climate sensitivity to changes in solar insolation in a simple coupled climate model

A simple coupled ocean, atmosphere and sea-ice model is presented. The idealised model consists of a zonally averaged land and ocean strip of constant angular width extending from pole to pole. The meridional energy transport in the ocean is modelled by contributions from the large scale thermohaline overturning cells and from horizontal diffusive fluxes. The atmospheric meridional energy transports are parametrised as diffusive fluxes in addition to advective transports in the Hadley domain. This parametrisation resolves the equatorward moisture transport as well as the poleward transport of potential energy in the upper branch of the Hadley circulation. The model reproduces the annual averaged meridional energy transports in the climate system with a small number of free model parameters. The basic feedbacks between the three climatic components are studied by investigating the model's sensitivity towards reductions in the solar insolation. It is found that the meridional energy transport in the ocean does not amplify the ice albedo feedback. This has important implications for modelling the climate sensitivity in atmosphere-only models, as these would exaggerate the sensitivity to changes in the solar insolation if their parametrisations of the meridional energy transport are constrained by surface temperatures. The role of the dependence of the atmospheric transports on the meridional temperature gradient is shown to have a significant influence on the sensitivity on the coupled model, and the inclusion of seasonal cycles greatly increase the models sensitivity. The Hadley circulation does significantly alter the strength of the ice-albedo feedback in the coupled model. The idealised configuration of the model makes it a useful tool for studying the feedbacks in the ocean-atmosphere-sea ice system in the context of the "Snowball Earth" hypothesis.     

Thermodynamic Feedback between Clouds and the Ocean Surface Mixed Layer

A cloud-ocean planetary boundary layer (OPBL) feedback mechanism is presented and tested in this paper. Water vapor, evaporated from the ocean surface or transported by the large-scale air flow, often forms convective clouds under a conditionally unstable lapse rate. The variable cloud cover and rainfall may have positive and negative feedback with the ocean mixed layer temperature and salinity structure. The coupling of the simplified Kuo’s (1965) cumulus cloud model to the Kraus-Turner’s (1967) ocean mixed layer model shows the existence of this feedback mechanism. The theory also predicts the generation of low frequency oscillation in the atmosphere and oceans.     

The influence of inter-annually varying albedo on regional climate and drought

Albedo plays an important role in land–atmosphere interactions and local climate. This study presents the impact on simulating regional climate, and the evolution of a drought, when using the default climatological albedo as is usually done in regional climate modelling, or using the actual observed albedo which is rarely done. Here, time-varying satellite derived albedo data is used to update the lower boundary condition of the Weather Research and Forecasting regional climate model in order to investigate the influence of observed albedo on regional climate simulations and also potential changes to land–atmosphere feedback over south-east Australia. During the study period from 2000 to 2008, observations show that albedo increased with an increasingly negative precipitation anomaly, though it lagged precipitation by several months. Compared to in-situ observations, using satellite observed albedo instead of the default climatological albedo provided an improvement in the simulated seasonal mean air temperature. In terms of precipitation, both simulations reproduced the drought that occurred from 2002 through 2006. Using the observed albedo produced a drier simulation overall. During the onset of the 2002 drought, albedo changes enhanced the precipitation reduction by 20 % on average, over locations where it was active. The area experiencing drought increased 6.3 % due to the albedo changes. Two mechanisms for albedo changes to impact land–atmosphere drought feedback are investigated. One accounts for the increased albedo, leading to reduced turbulent heat flux and an associated decrease of moist static energy density in the planetary boundary layer; the other considers that enhanced local radiative heating, due to the drought, favours a deeper planetary boundary layer, subsequently decreasing the moist static energy density through entrainment of the free atmosphere. Analysis shows that drought related large-scale changes in the regional climate favour a strengthening of the second mechanism. That is, the second mechanism is stronger in a drought year compared to a normal year and this difference is larger than for the first mechanism. When both mechanisms are active, the second mechanism tends to dominate across the model domain, particularly during the 2002 drought period. The introduction of observed inter-annual variations in albedo produces an enhancement of the first mechanism and a weakening of the second mechanism during the onset of the drought.     

Seasonal oceanic heat transports computed from an atmospheric model

Seasonal estimates of the oceanic poleward heat transport are obtained using a climate model that is a global atmospheric general circulation model on an 8° × 10° grid. The climate model is used to calculate the surface heat flux into each ocean grid point for each day of the year. The rate of ocean heat storage is calculated using climatological surface temperatures, mixed layer depths, and ice amounts. By assuming that the rate of change of heat storage in the deep ocean is spatially constant, the horizontal transports are calculated from the vertical fluxes and the upper ocean storage rates. The oceanic meridional transport for each latitude and for each ocean basin are derived, and results are compared with other calculations of the seasonal transports. In the Northern Hemisphere, comparisons between the simulated seasonal transports indicate that the annual variation is much greater in the Pacific than in the Atlantic.     

Influence of tropical cyclones on sea surface temperature seasonal cycle and ocean heat transport

Recent studies suggested that tropical cyclones (TCs) contribute significantly to the meridional oceanic heat transport by injecting heat into the subsurface through mixing. Here, we estimate the long-term oceanic impact of TCs by inserting realistic wind vortices along observed TCs tracks in a 1/2° resolution ocean general circulation model over the 1978–2007 period. Warming of TCs’ cold wakes results in a positive heat flux into the ocean (oceanic heat uptake; OHU) of ~480 TW, consistent with most recent estimates. However, ~2/5 of this OHU only compensates the heat extraction by the TCs winds during their passage. Another ~2/5 of this OHU is injected in the seasonal thermocline and hence released back to the atmosphere during the following winter. Because of zonal compensations and equatorward transport, only one-tenth of the OHU is actually exported poleward (46 TW), resulting in a marginal maximum contribution of TCs to the poleward ocean heat transport. Other usually neglected TC-related processes however impact the ocean mean state. The residual Ekman pumping associated with TCs results in a sea-level drop (rise) in the core (northern and southern flanks) of TC-basins that expand westward into the whole basin as a result of planetary wave propagation. More importantly, TC-induced mixing and air-sea fluxes cool the surface in TC-basins during summer, while the re-emergence of subsurface warm anomalies warms it during winter. This leads to a ~10 % reduction of the sea surface temperature seasonal cycle within TCs basins, which may impact the climate system.     

Marine biological feedback associated with Indian Ocean Dipole in a coupled ocean/biogeochemical model

The impact of marine ecosystem on the tropical climate variability in the Indian Ocean is investigated by performing coupled ocean/biogeochemical model experiments, which are forced by realistic surface winds from 1951 to 2010. Results from a suite of chlorophyll perturbation experiments reveal that the presence of chlorophyll can have significant effects on the characteristics of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), including its amplitude and skewness, as well as on the mean state. Specifically, chlorophyll increases mean sea surface temperature due to direct biological heating in regions where the mean mixed layer depth is generally shallow. It is also found that the presence of chlorophyll affects the IOD magnitude by two different processes: One is the amplifying effect by the mean chlorophyll, which leads to shoaling of mean thermocline depth, and the other is the damping effect by the interactively varying chlorophyll coupled with the physical model. There is also a biological impact on the skewness of the IOD, resulting in enhanced positive skewness. This skewness change is primarily caused by the phase dependency of the above two contradicting effects involving the asymmetric thermocline feedback and the nonlinear mixed layer heating.     

The seasonal cycle of mixed layer temperatures in a global ocean general circulation model

We examine mixed layer temperatures in a global ocean general circulation model subjected to seasonally varying climatological forcing. Harmonic analysis of monthly mixed layer temperatures and climatological sea surface temperatures (SSTs) shows that, on the average, the annual harmonic accounts for 90% of the total seasonal variance in both fields, while the semiannual harmonic accounts for about 8%. The semiannual signal is mostly confined to equatorial and high-latitude regions. The model mixed layer temperatures underestimate the mean amplitude of the annual harmonic in middle latitudes (65°||10°) by about 26%, while lagging climatological SSTs by 22 days, on average. In several parameter sensitivity experiments, these differences could be reduced to as little as 12% and 12.5 days, respectively, though most of this gain occurred when the mixed layer was unrealistically shallow (mean depth less than 65 m). At least part of the differences in amplitudes and phases of the annual harmonic is linked to the uncoupled formulation of the surface heat flux, which is computed using specified and seasonally varying climatological air temperatures. In ice-free areas, seasonal amplitudes and phases of air temperatures are almost identical to those of climatological SSTs. Thus, differences between model mixed layer temperatures and climatological SSTs give rise to Newtonian relaxation to SSTs, which then leads to amplitude damping and time lags in mixed layer temperatures relative to the SSTs.     

THEORETICAL CALCULATION MODEL OF SHORTWAVE RADIATION FOR THE EARTH-ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM AND ITS TESTING RESULTS

On the basis of radiation transfer theory,adopting improved two-stream algorithm incorporated with addingalgorithm,we build up a theoretical calculation model of shortwave radiation for the earth-atmosphere system whichcan be applied with satellite data.The model can calculate direct solar radiation,scattering solar radiation,heating rateand other physical quantities of radiation field at every layer of the atmosphere and on the earth's surface,if the under-ground reflectance or the planetary albedo obtained from satellite can be known.The model can be used in clear orcloudy atmosphere,and its calculating speed is fairly fast.We think that the model can be incorporated into large-scaleand mesoscale climatic models for the consideration of radiation calculation,and also it is useful for the utilization of so-lar energy.     

Perturbed physics ensemble using the MIROC5 coupled atmosphere–ocean GCM without flux corrections: experimental design and results

In this study, we constructed a perturbed physics ensemble (PPE) for the MIROC5 coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (CGCM) to investigate the parametric uncertainty of climate sensitivity (CS). Previous studies of PPEs have mainly used the atmosphere-slab ocean models. A few PPE studies using a CGCM applied flux corrections, because perturbations in parameters can lead to large radiation imbalances at the top of the atmosphere and climate drifts. We developed a method to prevent climate drifts in PPE experiments using the MIROC5 CGCM without flux corrections. We simultaneously swept 10 parameters in atmosphere and surface schemes. The range of CS (estimated from our 35 ensemble members) was not wide (2.2–3.2?°C). The shortwave cloud feedback related to changes in middle-level cloud albedo dominated the variations in the total feedback. We found three performance metrics for the present climate simulations of middle-level cloud albedo, precipitation, and ENSO amplitude that systematically relate to the variations in shortwave cloud feedback in this PPE.     

Growing interfacially coupled oscillations of the ocean–atmosphere

A stability analysis of the coupled ocean–atmosphere is presented which shows that the potential energy (PE) of the upper layer of the ocean is available to generate coupled growing planetary waves. An independent analysis suggests that the growth of these waves would be maintained in the presence of oceanic friction. The growing waves are a consequence of relaxing the rigid lid approximation on the ocean, thus allowing an upward transfer of energy across the sea surface. Using a two and a half layer model consisting of an atmospheric planetary boundary layer, coupled with a two layer ocean comprising an active upper layer and a lower layer in which the velocity perturbation is vanishingly small, it is shown that coupled unstable waves are generated, which extract PE from the main thermocline. The instability analysis is an extension of earlier work [Tellus 44A (1992) 67], which considered the coupled instability of an atmospheric planetary boundary layer coupled with an oceanic mixed layer, in which unstable waves were generated which extract PE from the seasonal thermocline. The unstable wave is an atmospheric divergent barotropic Rossby wave, which is steered by the zonal wind velocity, and has a wavelength of about 6000 km, and propagates eastward at the speed of the deep ocean current. It is argued that this instability, which has a multidecadal growth time constant, may be generated in the Southern Ocean, and that its properties are similar to observations of the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave (ACW).     

兰州冬季气溶胶的短波加热效应及其对混合层发展的影响

综合考虑无云天气条件下，气溶胶和大气中各种吸收气体对太阳辐射的影响，建立了一个气溶胶大气的短波加热率模式，研究了兰州冬季气溶胶的短波加热效应。计算结果表明:气溶胶吸收太阳辐射而加热大气的作用是显著的。在上述工作的基础上，建立了一个完全闭合的混合层发展模式，利用数值方法探讨了气溶胶的辐射效应对混合层发展的影响。计算发现大气中气溶胶的增加会抑制混合层的发展，使混合层内的平均位温减小。     

定常态副热带高压与垂直运动的关系

文中利用NCEP/NCAR月平均再分析资料研究了定常条件下二维和三维空间上副热带高压与垂直运动的关系 ;比较了Hadley环流和副热带高压动力学的差异。结果显示由于地球自转 ,在副热带地区出现了最大的经向质量通量的辐合 ,导致了纬向平均副热带高压的形成。在热成风关系的制约下 ,除了在北半球夏季 ,通常副热带高压脊线随高度增加向赤道倾斜。Hadley环流的下沉支从对流层顶垂直地延伸到行星边界层。因此副热带高压脊线与该下沉支在自由大气中位置分离 ,年际变化反相 ;在行星边界层中摩擦耗散作用使两者重合 ,年际变化同相 ,但垂直运动对副热带高压的形成不起作用。三维空间上 ,沿行星边界层的副热带高压脊线处为下沉运动 ,副热带大洋东部强烈的下沉运动对应着强烈的向赤道气流。自由大气中 ,垂直下沉运动的分布与副热带高压的分布不同。大洋上副热带高压东部大气下沉 ,副热带高压西部大气上升。这一方面与等熵面的北高南低的倾斜分布在动力学上是一致的 ;另一方面还表明副热带高压的形成也与非绝热加热密切相关。总之 ,不论是在自由大气还是在边界层中 ,不能简单地把下沉运动看成是副热带高压形成的原因。     

简单的热带海气耦合波——Rossby波的相互作用

在本文中分析了当大气和海洋中未经耦合前的自由波均为Rossby模时,经相互作用后所激发出的耦合波的物理性质。结果表明,由于大气和海洋的背景状态不同,可以激发出两类不稳定耦合Rossby波。一类波要求大气的背景场是斜压的,而海洋的混合层较深,即热容量较大。这是一类弱相互作用的不稳定波。另一类要求大气的背景场趋于正压性,而海洋的混合层较浅,即热容量较小。这是一类强相互作用的不稳定波。色散关系的计算表明,这两类不稳定波产生的物理机制也不相同。文中对解不同截断模的本征值问题提出了几种数学方法,同时还进一步提出了一种使大气和海洋自由Rossby模的色散关系不受歪曲的处理方法。     

The effect of horizontal resolution on ocean surface heat fluxes in the ECMWF model

Annual mean ocean surface heat fluxes have been studied as a function of horizontal resolution in the ECMWF model (cycle 33) and compared with Oberhuber's COADS (1959–1979) based empirical estimates. The model has been run at resolutions of T21, T42, T63 and T106 for 15 months with prescribed monthly varying climatological SST and sea ice. The T42 simulation was extended to 2 years, which enabled us to determine that many differences between the resolution runs were significant and could not be explained by the fact that individual realizations of an ensemble of years can be expected to give different estimates of the annual mean climate state. In addition to systematic differences between the modeled and the observed fluxes, the simulated fields of surface shortwave and longwave radiation showed much more spatial variability than the observed estimates. In the case of the longwave radiation this may be attributable more to deficiencies in the observations than to errors in the model. The modeled latent and sensible heat fields were in better agreement with observations. The primary conclusion concerning the dependence of ocean surface fluxes on resolution is that the T21 simulation differed significantly from the higher resolution runs, especially in the tropics. Although the differences among the three higher resolution simulations were generally small over most of the world ocean, there were local areas with large differences. It appears, therefore, that in relation to ocean surface heat fluxes, a resolution greater than T42 may not be justified for climate model simulations, although the locally large differences found between the higher resolution runs suggest that convergence has not been achieved everywhere even at T106.     

中国沙漠沙尘气溶胶对沙漠源区及北太平洋地区大气辐射加热的影响

针对2001年春季中国沙漠和北太平洋上空沙尘气溶胶的空间分布情况,利用辐射传输模式,分别计算了沙尘气溶胶对沙漠和海洋大气的辐射加热（冷却）率,并讨论了低云、中云、高云对辐射加热率的影响。结果表明:春季,位于中国沙漠和太平洋上空的沙尘层对大气具有明显的加热作用。当沙漠上空光学厚度为1.0,海洋上空光学厚度为0.3时,取春季平均太阳高度角,沙尘层对应的净辐射加热率分别为2.8 K/d和0.4 K/d。由于WMO推荐的沙尘模型比东亚沙尘模型对太阳辐射吸收强,采用该模型计算得到的中国沙漠和海洋上空的加热率比采用东亚沙尘模型分别高1.5 K/d和0.2 K/d。沙尘对大气的加热率很大程度上依赖于沙尘的大气载荷。这种依赖性首先受太阳高度角的影响, 其次也受地表反照率的影响。云对沙尘层辐射加热（冷却）率的影响与云的高度和厚度有关。低云能够加热沙漠和海洋上空的沙尘大气,冷却地面和洋面。中、高云冷却沙漠上空的沙尘层。在海洋上空,中云对云层以上的沙尘层有加热作用,对云层以下的沙尘层有冷却作用。高云对海洋上空沙尘层的辐射加热（冷却）率的影响比较小,加热还是冷却,取决于云的厚度,当云层较薄时,加热沙尘层,而当云层较厚的时候,有可能冷却沙尘层。     

On the horizontal density ratio in the upper ocean

The horizontal density ratio in the upper ocean is examined using SeaSoar data collected over the last 15 years in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The horizontal density ratio R is defined to be the ratio of the relative effect of temperature and salinity on density. A front with a horizontal density ratio of 1 is said to be compensated since temperature and salinity gradients compensate in their effect on density. The statistics of density ratio are examined through calculation of conditional probability density functions. Case studies from each of the oceans elucidate processes affecting the density ratio. Global distributions of density ratio are calculated as functions of mixed-layer depth, distance below the mixed layer, and magnitude of thermohaline variability. Compensation is found in all oceans, on 3–4 km horizontal scales, when the mixed layer is deep and significant thermohaline variability exists. The tendency for compensation is stronger as mixed-layer depth increases. Conversely, compensation is not typical in shallow mixed layers, or when thermohaline variability is weak. The thermocline density ratio is found to be 2, in agreement with previous observational studies, and consistent with the process of salt fingering. The transition from R=1 in the mixed layer to R=2 in the thermocline is sharp when the mixed layer is deep. The ubiquity of compensation in the mixed layer is consistent with recent theory that suggests horizontal eddy diffusivity is a growing function of density gradient.