A Review of “Rebuilding Urban Places After Disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina”

Women's earnings, employment, and commutes have generally lagged men's. Geographers emphasize the effects of women's gender roles on their spatial entrapment as limiting their job opportunities and labor market status. This research methodologically advances spatial entrapment research by utilizing a national model of commuting with spatial fixed effects to make more accurate predictions and generalizations. Second, this research found that a control group of same-sex partners allows for more direct isolation and measurement of the gender role effect on women's commutes. This research concluded that women's gender roles are negatively affecting their commuting range and, therefore, their labor market status.     

Race,Gender, and Spatial Segmentation in the Twin Cities*

This study analyzes commuting trends in a relatively vibrant setting during the 1980s to determine (a) how labor market segmentation correlates with differences in the spatial dimensions of local labor markets, and (b) whether this link represents a direct spatial effect, independent of earnings, travel mode, and part-time work. I use 1980 and 1990 PUMS data to analyze changes in racial and gender divisions in the workforce, and I develop an estimate of work trip distance to adjust for different travel modes. For all groups except white men, employment in a job “typical” of one's gender and racial group is associated with more localized commutes, but this effect is strongly mediated by variations in earnings and part-time work. Using a covariance structure model to control for these effects, I find no independent link between segmentation and longer commutes among African Americans. Earnings and commute distances remained unchanged over the decade for African Americans, providing no evidence of a purely spatial mismatch manifest in lengthening work trips without corresponding wage gains. The spatial dimensions of an employment mismatch for inner-city minorities are concealed through the replacement of production jobs by poorly paid service work in the expanding downtown economy of a vibrant regional center.     

The spatial distribution of occupational prestige in metropolitan Tel Aviv

Summary Occupational prestige is the social value attributed to occupation, and in most instances indicates socio-economic status. It is obtained at the workplace and manifested in one's lifestyle in a specific place of residence, and its spatial distribution therefore follows the repetitive flow of commuters. The geography of such prestige has not previously been studied; this study uses the 1983 census to examine the spatial distribution of occupational prestige in metropolitan Tel Aviv, Israel. It was found that most workers use short, local commuting routes, which point to relatively closed secondary spatial labour markets. Common generalizations in research regarding commuting length and occupational status reflect the social composition of the entire workforce, with workers of higher occupational status tending towards longer commutes. Yet, this study shows that such commuting is also undertaken by workers of lower occupational status, while short commuting is also undertaken by workers of higher status. In addition, the results show that such generalizations are spatially differentiated.     

COMMUTING DISTANCE AND GENDER AMONG NONMETROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY EMPLOYEES*

The applicability of metropolitan-derived explanations of gender differences in worktrip lengths is examined based on a sample of 435 university employees in the nonmetropolitan town of Blacksburg, VA. Women's worktrips are found to be longer than men's in contrast to metropolitan findings. This pattern results from the interaction of spatial structures of housing and employment with women's lower incomes, gender segregation of employment, and the tendency for married women to find jobs after their residence is established. Upward trends in female labor force participation rates and in nonmetropolitan growth require continued analysis of their joint impact on women's spatial behavior.     

THE EMERGENCE OF AFFLUENCE IN BEIJING: RESIDENTIAL SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN CHINA'S CAPITAL CITY

Since 1987, the Chinese government has begun to liberalize its approach to land markets, allowing for the development of commercial residential housing and sparking greater distinctions in housing quality. At the same time, there have been growing income differentials among Beijing's residents. This paper discusses how Beijing's new urban affluent have begun to take advantage of greater housing choices. It reports on a survey conducted in 1997 that uncovers the occupational characteristics, consumption patterns, housing characteristics, and residential locations of affluent residents. The results indicate that Beijing's new urban affluent are beginning to share some of the consumption features of middle-class Westerners. At the same time, social segregation is still nascent in Beijing. There is now only a sprinkling of affluent neighborhoods in the city, and a slight majority of wealthier respondents continue to live in public housing. Moreover, few are able to afford detached single-family housing or a private automobile. The continuation of current trends could both deepen and broaden social segregation in Beijing, as class divisions come to be manifested in separate neighborhoods. [Key words: socialist cities, affluence, Beijing, housing, social stratification.]     

转型期职业女性转职的过程特征

在城市化快速发展的过程中,职住关系研究已经成为学术研究的热点问题之一,职住所带来的空间结构是居住与就业选择后的结果。全面揭示居住与就业选择过程显得尤为重要。从20 世纪90 年代以来,中国开始正式进入转型期,中国就业市场环境发生了深刻变化,居民择业的自主性增加,就业行为日益复杂化,就业行为成为学术界关注的热点。已有研究主要通过与男性比较,探讨女性就业率、就业结构、职业流动等特征,以及特定类型女性在转型期的就业行为特征。这些研究忽视了不同女性在就业市场的转职特征的复杂性。本文基于职业女性的深度访谈,分析发现不同类型职业女性就业历程表现出稳定—波动、波动—稳定、稳定、波动转职过程特征;职业女性因自身属性的不同对就业市场转型的响应存在差异性。     

PATTERNS OF SPATIAL DISPERSION IN METROPOLITAN COMMUTING

The simultaneous impact of residential and employment decentralization in the form of multinucleations on patterns of commuting concentration and dispersion is examined for the Washington metropolitan area with 1980 data. Because of the area's generally white-collar labor force, the impact of segregated occupational groups is minimized and it is possible to examine strictly the spatial dimensions of commuting dispersion. Commuting becomes increasingly more dispersed from the center of the area to about 12 miles outward. Beyond that point, the patterns of commuting become considerably more complex, responding to a wide range of sizes of employment in a widely dispersed pattern of nucleations. In some sectors, commuting dispersion remains somewhat constant. In one sector, commuting patterns revert to some level of concentration, possibly responding to a somewhat unique situation of employment concentration along a corridor. These findings contribute to the recognition that tomorrow's transit structure cannot rely on its traditional form, but must become more selective.     

THE URBAN LABOR MARKET IN MEXICO: GLOBAL CHANGE,INFORMALITY, AND SOCIAL POLARIZATION

In this study I argue that Mexico's integration into the global economy has increased the dependent nature of its capitalist development and has resulted in the weakening of organized labor and growth of the informal sector. Neoliberal policies in Mexico have accentuated the disparities between the formal and informal sectors and between highly paid skilled workers and those working in unskilled and poorly paid occupations. New forms of geographic dispersion and agglomeration of economic activities contribute to the reproduction of differentiated labor markets in various regions and cities. This is particularly true in those areas most affected by the global economy, such as the major metropolitan areas and the northern regions of the country.

The main changes in the urban labor market associated with economic restructuring in Mexico during the 1980s are analyzed. The paper makes three main points: (1) the ability of the formal sector and especially industry to absorb labor has declined, and there is a clear trend toward a tertiarization of the economy; (2) the informal sector has experienced rapid growth, particularly in small firms and other less productive economic activities; and (3) the occupational structure displays more marginal employment and signs of polarization between the proportions of jobs with the highest and lowest levels of skill.     

BEYOND POSTMODERNISM

By simultaneously controlling for the spatial and social characteristics of neighborhoods, this study sheds new empirical light on the relationship between ethnic-enclave residence and ethnic-niche employment. Considering women's commuting constraints and their theoretically more local social networks, this study explores whether residential segregation may be a more important determinant of labor-market segregation for immigrant women than for men. The study finds that residential segregation plays an important role in sustaining labor-market segregation among immigrants, and that gender emerges as a salient mediating factor. While living in an ethnic enclave tends to be associated with ethnic-niche employment for both men and women, women who live in enclave neighborhoods have a higher rate of ethnic-niche employment than men. However, greater geographic accessibility to niche jobs is associated with niche employment for both immigrant men and women in general, and place-based context seems as important to men as women.     

SPATIAL CONSTRAINTS ON RURAL WOMEN WORKERS

Rural women represent an increasingly differentiated labor force, but do they experience the “friction of distance” entailed by the emergence of distinct metropolitan and nonmetropolitan labor markets in different ways? This paper uses survey data to examine the differential impacts of spatial constraints on groups of women workers. Cluster analysis is used to differentiate the labor force experiences of our employed survey respondents; significant differences exist in the transportation resources and labor force participation decisions among the three clusters identified and there is some indication that these differences also pose problems for intermittent participants in the labor force. The paper presents conclusions about concrete ways that space intervenes to shape (rather than merely contain) labor-force participation.     

Who has long commutes to low-wage jobs? Gender,race, and access to work in the New York region

Geographies of home and work have changed as public investment has favored central and distant suburban locations and as income inequality has increased. These changes result in shifting geographies of advantage that (dis)benefit gender and racial/ethnic groups unevenly. We examine commuting differentials by gender and race/ethnicity based on combinations of wages and commute times using data for the New York region.We find that Black, Asian, and Hispanic women and men are concentrated in jobs that have long commutes and low-wages, and Black and Hispanic workers’ concentrations increased from 2000–2010.Although Asian men and women remain overrepresented in that category, their share decreased in the 2000's.The urban core has become a region of heightened advantage, as White men, and an increasing share of White women, commute short times to well-paid jobs. Disadvantage has expanded for Black and Latina women whose long commutes are not compensated by well-paid employment.     

TRAVEL TO WORK AND LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION OF MEN AND WOMEN IN AN AUSTRALIAN METROPOLITAN AREA

For a number of social and cultural reasons, labor force participation rates of Australian women are low. One reason not previously investigated is the problem of geographic accessibility to employment, especially for suburban women. Results from journey-to-work studies show that females either work locally or in the central-city area, whereas males travel to more dispersed locations. Further investigation of female travel patterns from each of fifty-five suburban local government areas shows that the socioeconomic status of an area, together with its job mix, explains much variety in female work travel and suggests that workforce participation rates depend in part on local job availability. The research contributes to an understanding of the nature of occupational and geographical disaggregation of the Melbourne metropolitan labor market.     

Asian Labor Recruitment and the World Wide Web

International labor migration is produced and patterned through the activities of government and private institutions, such as labor recruiters and government officials. Recently, labor recruitment agencies have utilized the World Wide Web as a means of facilitating the procurement of foreign employment contracts. The purpose of this research is to examine the institutional usage of the Web as a means to facilitate the global flow of labor. Based on a qualitative assessment of 27 recruitment-related Web sites, I suggest that Web-based recruitment reinforces global patterns of gendered, racial, and occupational segregation. Moreover, Web-based recruitment offers the potential for revolutionizing patterns and processes of international labor migration.     

PATTERNS AND PROBLEMS OF COMMUTING TO PERIPHERAL URBAN WORKPLACES IN SINGAPORE: CASE STUDY OF SINGAPORE AIRLINES' EMPLOYEES

This paper addresses the issue of commuting patterns and problems to workplaces in the urban periphery of Singapore. It is based on a case study of journey-to-work patterns of employees of Singapore Airlines Limited (SIA). The company's headquarters is in Airline House which is situated in the eastern comer of Singapore, a location which suffers from accessibility problems. The paper focuses on mode choice in the journey-to-work and, by means of a questionnaire survey, examines commuting patterns of a sample of Airline House workers in terms of first, the characteristics of the different modes of transportation used; and second, the socio-economic characteristics of workers including factors such as income, gender, occupational status and age. This is followed by a discussion of the problems faced in the daily commutes of workers. Many of these problems such as inconvenient public transport services, traffic congestion and long transit times are representative of those of other peripheral workplaces in Singapore. Based on the findings of the case study, the paper discusses some policy implications of the government's planning efforts to decentralise office activities from the CBD to suburban regions.     

SPATIAL CONSTRAINTS ON WOMEN'S WORK IN TARIJA,BOLIVIA

ABSTRACT. This geography of women's work in the less‐developed world is set in Tarija, Bolivia, a small city that has been dramatically changed by economic crisis and structural‐adjustment programs. Explored is the spatial component of women's economic activities in a low‐income barrio following the imposition of structural‐adjustment programs in the 1980s and 1990s. Women who pursue employment away from home must rely on other women. In particular, households that include more than one woman who is capable of handling important daily chores are more likely to have a woman engaged in income‐generating activities away from the home and the neighborhood. Women at home make it possible for other women to extend their economic activity into the broader community. These findings are important because they draw attention to women's reliance on other women, how women use space, and how they are constrained by spatial factors as they negotiate their daily lives.     

中国三大城市化区域劳动力市场结构分割研究

本文考察了长三角、珠三角和京津唐三大城市化区域的中国劳动力市场空间与结构类型。基于劳动力市场分异和分割理论．本研究利用全国综合社会调查数据显示了研究区域内劳动力市场分异分割存在的大量证据。劳动力市场以性别、户口性质、企业所有制等为分异轴线的特征十分明显。文章还进一步指出了中国劳动力市场不仅是由劳动力的供求市场关系来塑造。同时也受制于各种制度性因素的作用。人力资本因素如教育等虽然是中国劳动市场分异的重要因素,但户口等制度性要素仍然严重地塑造着劳动力市场的分割。     

Race,Gender, and Constrained Work Trips in Buffalo,NY, 1990

This study investigates whether women's short commutes should be interpreted as constrained or convenient work trips by examining how race, gender, travel mode, occupation, residential location, workplace location, and Inc.ome affect commuting time. The analysis is restricted to a sample of European American and African American male and female workers residing in Buffalo, New York, and the surrounding county using data drawn from the Public Use Microdata Samples of the 1990 U.S. census. Given the pervasive gender wage gap, women unsurprisingly have more compromised (short commutes to low-Inc.ome jobs) work trips than do men. Multivariate analysis reveals that among those who reverse commute to suburban locations, African American women have the longest work trips.     

Race,Gender, and Constrained Work Trips in Buffalo,NY, 1990

This study investigates whether women's short commutes should be interpreted as constrained or convenient work trips by examining how race, gender, travel mode, occupation, residential location, workplace location, and Inc.ome affect commuting time. The analysis is restricted to a sample of European American and African American male and female workers residing in Buffalo, New York, and the surrounding county using data drawn from the Public Use Microdata Samples of the 1990 U.S. census. Given the pervasive gender wage gap, women unsurprisingly have more compromised (short commutes to low-Inc.ome jobs) work trips than do men. Multivariate analysis reveals that among those who reverse commute to suburban locations, African American women have the longest work trips.     

国内外社会空间分异测度研究综述

社会空间分异作为一个具有社会性及空间性的概念,其测度研究直接关系到隔离等级划分的合理性和有效性。本文根据不同历史时期空间分异测度研究所关注的视角,将社会空间分异测度研究分为早期萌芽阶段、多维度群体评估阶段、空间转向阶段、多模型多视角阶段等4个阶段,介绍了社会空间分异测度指标在各阶段的演变特点和主要测度指标,并对其中26个主要指数进行比较和分类,阐述各指数的适用范围和优缺点。分析国内社会空间分异相关研究现状,指出其存在多维度指标使用较少且多为实证性研究,空间分异测算方法缺少理论基础的不足。移动互联网和社交网络空间快速发展,对社会空间分异的测算方法提出新的要求;基于地理位置信息的个人行为空间交互数据和基于虚拟网络的赛博空间交互数据,为社会空间分异研究提供了新的研究视角。     

Migrants,manufacturing and metropolitan labour markets in Australia

While the experience of migrants in the Australian labour market has received considerable attention, few researchers have asked how uniform this experience has been across the country's major metropolitan labour markets. This paper shows that migrants employed in the manufacturing sector exhibit noticeable differences in their relative access to jobs in different parts of the country. This evidence raises a number of questions about the appropriate scale within which to consider the labour participation and occupational selection experience of migrant men and women.