Segregation as a multiscalar phenomenon and its implications for neighborhood-scale research: the case of South Seattle 1990–2010

Neighborhoods and neighborhood change are often at least implicitly understood in relation to processes taking place at scales both smaller than and larger than the neighborhood itself. Until recently our capacity to represent these multiscalar processes with quantitative measures has been limited. Recent work on “segregation profiles” by Reardon and collaborators expands our capacity to explore the relationship between population measures and scale. With the methodological tools now available, we need a conceptual shift in how we view population measures in order to bring our theories and measures of neighborhoods into alignment. I argue that segregation can be beneficially viewed as multiscalar; not a value calculable at some “correct” scale, but a continuous function with respect to scale. This shift requires new ways of thinking about and analyzing segregation with respect to scale that engage with the complexity of the multiscalar measure. Using block-level data for eight neighborhoods in Seattle, Washington, I explore the implications of a multiscalar segregation measure for understanding neighborhoods and neighborhood change from 1990 to 2010.     

Segregation of Residents with Tertiary Education in Sweden from 1990 to 2012

There has been a dramatic increase in the number of people with tertiary education in Sweden, partly due to the governmental policy of making higher education more geographically available. In this study, we analyze how educational expansion and the governmental policy of offering tertiary education outside of old academic centers affected segregation patterns in 2012 compared to 1990. We analyze the spatial distribution of those with tertiary education using neighborhoods based on k-nearest neighbors and measure the segregation of residents with tertiary education using a multiscalar method. Additionally, we compare local labor market regions that include old, new, or no institutions of higher education. The results show an overall higher share of tertiary-educated people age twenty-five to sixty-four in all parts of Sweden in 2012 and a decrease in the levels of population-weighted mean segregation at all geographical scales. Segregation was mostly introduced on the city or city district level (for larger cities) and regional level rather than the neighborhood level. Segregation also decreased in all three types of labor market regions. The segregation patterns remained similar between 2012 and 1990, however, and a higher share of the population lived in segregated areas in 2012 compared to that in 1990.     

Neighborhood Diversity and Segregation in the Chicago Metropolitan Region, 1980-2000

This article examines how neighborhood racial diversity shaped segregation in Chicago from 1980 to 2000, utilizing data from the 1980, 1990, and 2000 United States censuses. Three questions framed this research project. First, how racially diverse were Chicago neighborhoods? Second, which neighborhood factors were associated with racial diversity? And third, how has the change in neighborhood racial diversity changed patterns of segregation in Chicago? The Theil entropy score and the Theil H index were used to create racial diversity scores for each census tract and global segregation scores, respectively. Evidence is presented that supports the thesis that racial diversity in census tracts increased, which fostered a decline in overall segregation. However, new patterns of segregation are emerging between the Latino and black populations that are creating new spatial divisions within the city and suburbs.     

Comparing Traditional and Spatial Segregation Measures: A Spatial Scale Perspective1

Measuring the level of segregation often encounters two methodological issues: measures are sensitive to changes in the geographical scale of the data and the effectiveness of the measure in reflecting spatial segregation. Several spatial measures have been suggested to measure spatial segregation, but whether they are more or less sensitive to changes in spatial scale has not been investigated, while some spatial measures are relatively scale-insensitive. Using the 1990 Census data of 30 selected U.S. metropolitan areas, this paper demonstrates that these spatial measures, similar to the aspatial measure, report higher levels of segregation when smaller areal units are used in the analysis. Some spatial measures are even more sensitive to scale changes than aspatial measures. Certain patterns of the scale sensitivity were identified, but no general rules can be formulated. A preliminary explanation of the scale effect on spatial segregation measures is offered.     

Economic segregation in transition China: evidence from the 20 largest cities

Economic segregation in urban areas is important to scholars and policymakers because it is thought to exacerbate inequality in social outcomes such as education, social capital formation, and employment. A growing body of comparative work examines factors associated with higher levels of urban segregation within different countries. Increasingly, this work examines differences between levels of segregation across the income distribution rather than just one measure of segregation per city. China has high levels of income inequality and has undergone a dynamic process of urbanization in recent decades as it transitions from a centrally planned system to one in which markets allocate goods. Using census data from the 20 largest cities in China, we measure the level of economic segregation and examine its determinants. Chinese cities are highly segregated. Segregation levels tend to be higher in larger and richer cities and more pronounced among renters. There is a stronger link between segregation based on housing type and expenditure than between migrant status and expenditures, which leads us to speculate that the pace, timing, and scale of housing development are the dominant drivers of economic segregation.     

Segregation and Residential Mobility of Vietnamese Immigrants in Brisbane,Australia

The study focuses on residential mobility propensities of Vietnamese immigrants in the city of Brisbane, Australia, as a principal force contributing to the persistence or change of ethnic residential segregation over time. Using 1990 survey data, discrete-time logit models are estimated to assess the effects of locational, contextual, and personal characteristics on the likelihood of changing residence within the city. The results indicate that locational variables operate in such a way that the most dominant Vietnamese neighborhood in Brisbane increases its prominence even further, while secondary Vietnamese clusters are likely to weaken. The results also indicate that initial settlement conditions are important for the first move only, whereas personal attributes contribute to variations in mobility propensities primarily in the second move. This implies that the composition of the immigrant population potentially influences the speed at which changes in ethnic residential patterns will occur in urban areas.     

Latent sprawl,divided Mediterranean landscapes: urban growth,swimming pools,and the socio-spatial structure of Athens,Greece

Although Mediterranean cities have inherent differences on a local scale, together they offer a kaleidoscopic overview of distinctive morphologies and patterns of socio-spatial segregation. In this study, we explore the distribution of residential swimming pools as indicators of the use of land and water at the metropolitan scale, in relation to recent changes in the socio-spatial structure of a large Mediterranean city (Athens, Greece). Our results indicate a polarized spatial distribution of swimming pools, still considered a luxury affordable only for a minor segment of the Greek population. The analysis highlights the spatial linkages between concentration of residential pools, class segregation and low-density settlements, indicating that the socio-spatial structure of Athens remains characterized by persistent disparities between rich and poor neighborhoods. Comparison with another Mediterranean city (Barcelona) demonstrates the peculiarity of Athens’ recent development as reflected in the fragmented and polarized urban structure. The study provides an alternative reading of recent Mediterranean urban growth by considering pools as a “landmark” for urban sprawl, producing contested landscapes of localized social segregation.     

Multiscale Segregation: Multilevel Modeling of Dissimilarity—Challenging the Stylized Fact That Segregation Is Greater the Finer the Spatial Scale

A very large literature has explored the intensity of urban residential segregation using the index of dissimilarity. Several recent studies have undertaken such analyses at multiple spatial scales, invariably reaching the conclusion that the finer grained the spatial scale, the greater the segregation. Such findings, however, overstate the intensity of segregation at finer spatial scales because they fail to take into account an argument made by Duncan et al. some sixty years ago that indexes derived from fine-scale analyses must necessarily incorporate those from coarser scales, with the consequence that finer scale segregation is invariably overestimated. Moreover, most studies ignore stochastic variation that results in upward bias in the estimates of segregation. This article demonstrates the importance of a recently developed multilevel modeling procedure that identifies the “true” intensity of segregation at every level in a spatial hierarchy net of its intensity at other levels and also net of stochastic variation This is illustrated by both a simulated data set and an empirical study of an English city, with the latter raising important substantive issues regarding the interpretation of segregation patterns and the processes underlying them. Key Words: dissimilarity, multilevel modeling, scale, segregation.     

Segregation and Residential Mobility of Vietnamese Immigrants in Brisbane,Australia

The study focuses on residential mobility propensities of Vietnamese immigrants in the city of Brisbane, Australia, as a principal force contributing to the persistence or change of ethnic residential segregation over time. Using 1990 survey data, discrete-time logit models are estimated to assess the effects of locational, contextual, and personal characteristics on the likelihood of changing residence within the city. The results indicate that locational variables operate in such a way that the most dominant Vietnamese neighborhood in Brisbane increases its prominence even further, while secondary Vietnamese clusters are likely to weaken. The results also indicate that initial settlement conditions are important for the first move only, whereas personal attributes contribute to variations in mobility propensities primarily in the second move. This implies that the composition of the immigrant population potentially influences the speed at which changes in ethnic residential patterns will occur in urban areas.     

地理尺度下广州市职业空间分异特征研究

以广州市从业人员的空间分异为研究切入点,通过尺度回归曲线和宏微观尺度比率研究社会空间分异的五个维度的尺度变化特征,结合等值线分布图分析从业人员在宏微观尺度中的空间分异模式。研究表明,空间分异中均匀性、集中性和集群性维度受尺度变化影响较大,向心性和接触性维度受尺度变化影响较小。国家机关、党群组织、企业事业单位负责人空间分布呈双峰结构,主要分布在中心圈层,集中性、向心性较高,接触性、集群性和均匀性维度较低;办事人员和专业技术人员空间分布呈单核心多次中心结构,主核心位于中心城区,集中性、向心性、均匀性较高,接触性和集群性较低;商业服务业人员空间分布呈双主峰结构,分布在中心城区和北部城区,空间分异五维度均较高;生产运输设备操作人员空间分布呈火山口结构,人口集中分布在中间圈层,接触性、集中性、集群性较高,均匀性、向心性较低;农、林、牧、渔、水利业生产人员呈盆地状结构,主要分布在最外圈层,除接触性维度较高外其他维度均较低。     

城市土地利用变化中邻域相互作用的特征——日本三大都市圈的比较研究

Local spatial interaction between neighborhood land-use categories (i.e. neighborhood interaction) is an important factor which affects urban land-use change patterns. Therefore,it is a key component in cellular automata (CA)-based urban geosimulation models towards the simulation and forecast of urban land-use changes. Purpose of this paper is to interpret the similarities and differences of the characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes of different metropolitan areas in Japan for providing empirical materials to understand the mechanism of urban land-use changes and construct urban geosimulation models. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes of three metropolitan areas in Japan,i.e. Tokyo,Osaka,and Nagoya,were compared using such aids as the neighborhood interaction model and similarity measure function. As a result,urban land-use in the three metropolitan areas was found to have had similar structure and patterns during the study period. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes are quite different from land-use categories,meaning that the mechanism of urban land-use changes comparatively differs among land-use categories. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction reveal the effect of spatial autocorrelation in the spatial process of urban land-use changes in the three metropolitan areas,which correspond with the characteristics of agglomeration of urban land-use allocation in Japan. Neighborhood interaction amidst urban land-use changes between the three metropolitan areas generally showed similar characteristics. The regressed neighborhood interaction coefficients in the models may represent the general characteristics of neighborhood effect on urban land-use changes in the cities of Japan. The results provide very significant materials for exploring the mechanism of urban land-use changes and the construction of universal urban geosimulation models which may be applied to any city in Japan.     

Characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes: A comparative study between three metropolitan areas of Japan

Local spatial interaction between neighborhood land-use categories (i.e. neighborhood interaction) is an important factor which affects urban land-use change patterns. Therefore, it is a key component in cellular automata (CA)-based urban geosimulation models towards the simulation and forecast of urban land-use changes. Purpose of this paper is to interpret the similarities and differences of the characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes of different metropolitan areas in Japan for providing empirical materials to understand the mechanism of urban land-use changes and construct urban geosimulation models. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes of three metropolitan areas in Japan, i.e. Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya, were compared using such aids as the neighborhood interaction model and similarity measure function. As a result, urban land-use in the three metropolitan areas was found to have had similar structure and patterns during the study period. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction in urban land-use changes are quite different from land-use categories, meaning that the mechanism of urban land-use changes comparatively differs among land-use categories. Characteristics of neighborhood interaction reveal the effect of spatial autocorrelation in the spatial process of urban land-use changes in the three metropolitan areas, which correspond with the characteristics of agglomeration of urban land-use allocation in Japan. Neighborhood interaction amidst urban land-use changes between the three metropolitan areas generally showed similar characteristics. The regressed neighborhood interaction coefficients in the models may represent the general characteristics of neighborhood effect on urban land-use changes in the cities of Japan. The results provide very significant materials for exploring the mechanism of urban land-use changes and the construction of universal urban geosimulation models which may be applied to any city in Japan.     

Multiple deprivation in cities: the case of Ilorin,Nigeria

Studies on level-of-living conditions have generally been executed at three basic levels (i.e. the interregional, the intra-regional and the intra-urban scales) and have usually been analysed using either the single variable or the multi-variable approach. The present study examines spatial variations in Ilorin, Nigeria at the relatively neglected intra-urban scale. The multi-variable approach has been preferred to the single variable method in order to account for the obvious intercorrelation of different social problems in space. Results reveal very marked spatial disparities in social conditions in the city, the more indigenous areas being the most deprived. Policy implications in favour of the more disadvanged areas include stronger community involvement by the local residents as well as more positive discrimination in subsequent allocation of funds and resources in favour of these places by policy makers.     

长江经济带旅游效率与规模的时空演化及耦合协调

区域旅游效率和旅游规模的空间差异明显,动态把握两者时空演化特征和耦合协调关系对推动旅游高质量可持续发展具有重要的理论意义和实践价值。测度长江经济带126个市域单元2001—2018年的旅游规模,引入DEA-MI模型对旅游效率进行测算和分解,运用探索性时空数据分析方法探讨区域旅游差异和空间结构的时空动态特征,构建旅游效率与规模的耦合协调度模型,分析两者的耦合优良性和协同一致性。结果表明:① 长江经济带旅游综合效率空间差异明显,平均情况呈现东西高中间低的分布特征,年际变动呈现波动下降态势,规模效率对综合效率起支撑作用,技术效率起影响和制约作用;② 旅游效率和旅游规模局部空间结构波动幅度较小,依赖方向较为稳定,后者波动性稍强于前者,且空间依赖方向变化相似,旅游效率局部结构竞争态势强于协作,旅游规模协作整合性较强;③ 旅游规模局部空间结构较稳定,市域单元相对位置变动较困难,旅游效率局部空间结构尚不稳定,市域单元存在较大的变动可能性;④ 旅游效率与规模的整体耦合度和耦合协调度逐渐提高,具有相似的时空分异特征,局部演进存在空间异质性和波动性,耦合协调度高值区扩散范围更广、速度较缓。     

非户籍与户籍人口居住空间分异的多维度解析——以深圳为例

在居住空间相异指数基础上,构建了集聚—分散度、中心—边缘度和极化—均质度指数,进一步挖掘由于人口聚居形态、居住区位和居住质量等方面差异导致的居住空间分异的多维内涵,及其所揭示出的社会经济空间现象、成因及空间治理重点。利用全国第六次人口普查数据开展深圳实证研究,在计算全市及各区分维指数的基础上,分析深圳人口居住空间相异指数特征及空间尺度差异,多维居住空间分异格局特征及成因,并通过聚类分析将深圳非户籍与户籍人口居住空间分异类型划分为三类,分类提出空间治理政策建议。从而为深入理解中国大城市日益出现的居住分异现象及机制提供新鲜视角和多样化测度方法,为解决其带来的社会及空间治理问题提供更有针对性的政策建议。     

Between the "Global" and the "Local": On Global Locality and Local Globality

This study offers new perspectives on the impact of global and local interactions on cities today. We look at two opposing ways of integrating global processes with the local functioning of cities. The first mode relates to a city representing unique local significance that is recognized and valued on the global scale. This globality is not economic but it affects the global interactions of individuals, institutions, and businesses in these cities. We term this type of city a global locality. The second mode is a city that serves as a local cultural and economic gateway to its region. Whether located higher or lower on the World Cities roster, at the local and regional scale it serves as both business center and cultural hub. We term this type of city a local globality. In this article, we discuss both city types using Tel Aviv-Jaffa and Jerusalem as examples.     

Localized Effects of Globalization: The Case of Ciudad Juárez,Chihuahua, Mexico

This paper explores how the rise of global industrialization has altered the internal complexion of Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, the largest and fastest growing of Mexico's northern border cities. First, we trace the political-economic history of Ciudad Juárez and other northern Mexican border cities in order to understand the context of rapid industrialization. Second, we document the dimensions of industrialization by tracing historic trends in population growth, industrial employment, and land-use change. Third, a deprivation index is developed to evaluate the effects of industrialization on quality-of-life at the neighborhood scale in Ciudad Juárez. Deprivation indices are calculated for 266 AGEBs (Mexican geostatistical districts) for the years 1990 and 1995, and changes in levels of deprivation are monitored over time. The analyses show that Ciudad Juárez has experienced unprecedented growth that altered the form, function, and social complexion of the city.     

入室盗窃多尺度地理因子分析

选取N市作为研究区域,以该市2013年全年的入室盗窃案件作为研究对象。将研究区域内入室盗窃与地理因子在不同空间尺度上进行关联性对比分析。首先,从环境犯罪学理论和现有犯罪地理特征研究两方面出发,分析现有研究中的尺度依赖性。每一套环境犯罪学理论均有其适用的空间尺度,在犯罪地理特征研究中会有相应的地理因子与之关联;其次,引入似不相关回归模型获取入室盗窃与地理因子在小区、街区、社区、街道以及区等多个空间尺度上的关联性。并用瓦尔德检验来测试各个关联系数之间差异的显著性。实验结果表明,随着尺度的变化,有些地理因子与入室盗窃的关联性并未变化,有些则发生了显著变化。这些变化可用不同尺度的犯罪地理学理论进行解释;最后,将多个尺度地理因子反演入室盗窃空间分布的结果进行综合,并将之与单一尺度的反演结果进行比较。结果证明,与单一尺度的地理因子反演犯罪空间分布的精度相比,利用多个尺度地理因子解释犯罪空间分布的精度更高。研究表明：在犯罪地理学研究中,环境犯罪学理论、地理因子分析以及犯罪空间分布反演均存在尺度依赖性。综合多个尺度的结果进行分析,不仅有利于准确认识犯罪的地理因子及其对应理论,对于犯罪反演精度也有所提高。     

顾及空间尺度效应的城市土地利用变化精细化模拟

城市土地利用变化模拟是优化土地资源配置的科学依据,提高其精细化程度和可靠性有助于准确把握城市用地发展趋势,对城市土地资源精准调控具有重要意义。基于宏观遥感分类的土地利用变化模拟,难以在街区尺度上揭示城市用地社会功能变化及精细化模拟中空间尺度效应来源和作用机理。本文联合遥感影像和POI数据识别出城市土地利用精细化特征,运用响应面法率定土地利用精细化模拟的最优空间尺度组合,在此基础上,利用CA-Markov模型开展了未来土地利用变化的精细化模拟。以武汉市中心城区为应用案例,研究结果表明：基于POI 的城市土地利用精细化识别方法,可以深度解析城市建设用地的社会功能,极大改善了传统基于遥感的土地覆被宏观解译效果;研究区土地利用变化元胞自动机精细化模拟的最优空间尺度组合是30 m元胞、7×7邻域以及冯诺依曼邻域类型,采用最优空间尺度组合能够提高土地利用变化精细化模拟的可靠性。响应面试验设计结果可有效识别精细化模拟过程中空间尺度效应的主要来源,并区分其对模拟精度的影响程度与正负效应;预计到2025年,研究区建设用地范围将继续向周边扩张,各类型用地之间互为交织,土地利用空间格局将呈更加破碎化趋势。     

满洲里口岸—城市关系演变的多尺度因素影响分析

沿边口岸是“一带一路”倡议中各主权国家之间经济合作的关键节点。本文以中俄边界往来最密切的口岸城市满洲里为例,首先,通过构建改进动态集中指数（MDCI）,将满洲里口岸—城市关系划分为低水平平衡发展阶段（1979—1987年）、口岸发展稍快于城市发展阶段（1988—1997年）、口岸发展大幅快于城市发展阶段（1998—2005年）、城市发展稍快于口岸发展阶段（2006—2015年）和口岸与城市关系新突变点（2016—2017年）。其次,应用向量自回归模型（VAR）,分析了国家、区域、地方和个体4个尺度对满洲里口岸—城市关系影响的程度,研究表明：在全时段上,表现为国家尺度>个体尺度>地方尺度>区域尺度的关系;低水平平衡发展阶段,表现为国家尺度影响较大,区域尺度、地方尺度和个体尺度影响较小;口岸发展稍快于城市发展阶段,以国家尺度影响为主,其中,俄罗斯影响稍大于中国,其他尺度影响均较小;口岸发展大幅快于城市发展阶段,国家、区域及个体尺度均起到了重要作用,且作用大小相对均衡;城市发展稍快于口岸发展阶段,国家尺度、区域尺度、地方尺度作用较明显,个体尺度影响弱化,其中,区域尺度影响最大,之后表现为国家尺度（俄罗斯）>地方尺度>国家尺度（中国）>个体尺度的关系。口岸与城市关系新突变点,个体尺度与国家尺度影响较大,区域尺度与地方尺度影响较小。最后,综合运用VAR模型、深度访谈等定量和定性分析方法,从国家、区域、地方及个体尺度因素对口岸—城市关系演变的影响机理进行了全时段和分阶段的分析。本研究可为满洲里促进口岸—城市关系的良性发展提供多尺度视角的新思路,也可为中国广大边境地区探讨口岸—城市关系的发展提供借鉴。