Trends and characteristics of part-time farming in post-war Japan

Part-time farming is a wide-spread phenomenon in contemporary rural Japan. Characterized by an extremely small-scale rice farming and by a unimodal equitable rural development, most Japanese farm households have combined farming with off-farm employment. In this article, after an examination of the definition of part-time farming (farm household as the unit), the trend of and factors for part-time farming are described and analyzed. Growth and expansion of off-farm employment opportunities, continued small-sized farming, rapid increase in farmland prices and development and diffusion of labor-saving technology are among the major forces which encouraged part-time farming in Japan. Although the overall performance of part-time farms appears less efficient in the use of non-labor resources (e.g., land and machinery), part-time farms still occupy a significant share in the aggregate agricultural production and in the total farmland cropped. Various on-farm and off-farm adjustments are pointed out which have enabled dual employment patterns to be adopted by these people. In essence, due to the limited opportunities for farm-size expansion, part-time farming is considered a necessity, rather than a choise, for most Japanese farm families. But this has also caused some serious agricultural problems, especially with respect to its impact on farmsize structure and inefficient land use. At least for the purpose of maintaining a high income level and for equitable access to opportunities, part-time farming has seemingly contributed beneficially to the farming population of Japan.     

The geography of part-time farming — A new vista for agricultural geographers

This paper presents a macro level geographic vista and a theoretical vista as research avenues for an approach to the study of part-time farming. In Canada about one-third of all farm operators have reported off-farm work in addition to farming in each census period since 1941. The utility of the Canadian Census is illustrated and the temporal and spatial variations in the degree and intensity of part-time farming in Canada are examined. Variations in the degree of part-time farming appear to represent an aggregate response to the needs, opportunities and traditions associated with specific regions while variations in the intensity of off-farm work appear to represent some component of the form or nature of part-time farming.The theoretical vista is a call for agricultural geographers to incorporate part-time farming as one of the elements in the systems approach to the study of agriculture and as a key index in agricultural typologies. It is also suggested that specific typologies of part-time farming be developed. In the Canadian context a theoretical spatial order consisting of 1) areas of symbiotic relationship; 2) areas of low economic opportunity; 3) rural-urban fringe areas and; 4) areas of high agricultural potential, can be utilized to synthesize the degree, intensity and form of part-time farming.     

Agricultural transformation in Zimbabwe: Lessons for South Africa after apartheid

When Zimbabwe became independent in 1980, reversing historical inequalities became a primary rural development objective. Growth, it was argued, must also generate greater equity. As part of their overall plan, sophisticated agricultural institutions were made available to black farmers and a land resettlement program enacted. Due to constitutional constraints, international pressure, fears about restructuring the economy too rapidly, and a class alliance between white farmers and an emerging black bourgeoisie, limited highveld land was reallocated and large-scale commercial farmers maintained their historical privileges. The only significant change in the subsector was increased capital intensity of production. Small-scale black farmers with access to good land and productive resources have responded remarkably to new production opportunities. In only 7 years, black production of maize and cotton more than doubled and marketed contributions rose from less than 10% to approximately half of national sales. The pattern of agricultural development, however, is spatially and socially limited. New forms of uneven rural development are emerging. The majority of rural blacks still have inadequate land and off-farm income resources to insure subsistence levels of consumption on an annual basis. The rural crisis persists. In South Africa, a Zimbabwe-type small farm development strategy would help a minority of households who are already relatively privileged in terms of access of land, agricultural capital and off-farm income resources. To achieve rural growth and equity, new forms of social organization in farming must be developed concurrent with a major land redistribution program. Zimbabwe's strategy has successfully generated short-term growth but cannot fulfill longer-term rural development objectives.     

Part-time farming: The Cyprus case

Part-time farming is a feature and a consequence of economic change which involves labour movement out of agriculture. It helps to sustain the rural sector by reducing the rate of outmigration. This paper reports on a pilot survey of part-time farmers in the S, Government-controlled part of Cyprus. The economy is growing rapidly with agriculture declining in relative importance although still contributing nearly half the value of exports. Over 50 % of farmers are part-time, meaning in this case they have another occupation. In general, farming is a minor activity and time spent in off-farm work is often increasing to maintain income levels. However the majority of the sample are keen to maintain their farming activity.In the Cyprus study part-time farmers appear slightly younger and operate smaller units than average; they rent in less land and irrigate a smaller area. Considerable differences are found between the four main agricultural zones; mountain, vines, dryland and coastal. At one extreme, exemplified by the coastal zone, commercial part-time farming provides a high standard of living on farms which are somewhat smaller than average. Off-farm work is available locally and complements farm work. Farmers' confidence in long-term prospects is reflected in their willingness (and ability) to invest on the farm and in their low levels of family, migration. At the other extreme, found in the depressed areas of the mountain zone, overt government policies may be required to ensure the continued existence of farming. The combined income of on and off farm work may be inadequate and farmers often have to borrow to meet basic household needs. These farmers travel long distances to find work and may have more than one off-farm occupation. Much of the burden of farm work falls on other family members. Although farmers would prefer to spend more time in agriculture they have limited confidence in its future prospects and recognize the possible necessity of outmigration.     

Part-time farming in Canada: Issues and non-issues

Part-time farming has always existed in Canada. Since 1941, about one-third of census-farm operators have reported some off-farm work. The structure of participation in off-farm work by type of farm remained relatively stable in the 1961 to 1976 period suggesting a stable relationship between the production of certain food commodities and off-farm work by farmers.Off-farm work can be considered to be one of the productive enterprises to which an operator may allocate his human and non-human capital endowment. There is no (economic) theoretical basis for policies to discriminate against part-time farmers — part-time farming is consistent with efficient food production.Off-farm work is one way to improve the welfare of farmers and rural communities. Off-farm work appears to aid the entry of many but not a majority of recent entrants to the status of full-time farming. Not many full-time farmers appear to use off-farm work as a mechanism to leave agriculture. Public policies should directly pursue their objectives of efficient food production, fair farmer incomes etc. regardless of whether the farmer is full-time or part-time.     

Part-time farming in the Federal Republic of Germany

Part-time farming has to be considered important in the Federal Republic of Germany. Only one half of the agricultural holdings are presently farmed as full-time farms, occupying 77 % of the farmed area. The importance of part-time farming is not associated with the production of agricultural commodities, but is connected with the combination of farming and non-farming activities.In the Federal States of Baden-Württemberg and Saarland there exists a traditional interrrelationship between industry and part-time farming. Other regions, predominantly peripheral middle-range mountain areas with small farms and less favored natural conditions, form other concentrations. As local job opportunities are often non-existant, it means that daily long distance travel to reach off-farm places of employment is necessary.The income situation of part-time farmers can be considered satisfactory. Only 14 % are unable to earn their living entirely from non-farm earnings and consequently depend upon agriculture. According to statements made by part-time farmers their motivation to remain in farming is influenced by the compensation of working in a more natural environment. In view of the present (unsatisfactory) income situation of many small full-time farms, part-time farming is likely to increase in the future and to form a stable element in the agricultural structure of the Federal Republic of Germany.     

Part-time farming in Spain — a review

This paper is a review of statistical data and existing research on the part-time farming in Spain. The available data show an important level of development of the phenomenon: in 1965, 37.7 % of the earnings obtained by farm families are from jobs off the farm; in 1972, 48 % of the agrarian operators had main jobs off the farm. Most of the part-time farms are of small size although the phenomenon is also important on groups of farms of the largest size. The regional studies show a greater development of part-time farming in the Cantabrian coast, where the part-time farmer working in industry prevails, and in the E and S regions, where the jobs off the farm but within the agrarian sector (wage labour) are very important. Some studies on the stability of part-time farming show that this stability depends on the type of farming, the market of agricultural land in the area and the conditions of the jobs off the farm. In the present economic crisis the interest in part-time farming has been increased.Translated by Isabel Carbonell. Comments on earlier versions of this paper were provided by Prof. Josep Caries Genoves.     

Part-time farming in Norway

Conclusion Despite changes during the part thirty years, part-time farming seems certain to remain a dominant feature of Norwegian agriculture well into the future. Environmental conditions and the size structure of Norwegian farms would alone be sufficient to guarantee this. But the survival of part-time farming is likely to be further assisted by an agricultural policy which seeks, inter alia, the continuing development of agriculture on small farms and in marginal areas in order to maximize the use of scarce resources of agricultural land and maintain population and settlement in the more peripheral regions.     

Adapting capitalism: Household plots, forest resources, and moonlighting in post-Soviet Siberia1

Economic reform in post-Soviet Russia has proceeded unevenly, resulting in broad variation between rural and urban areas. In the case study presented here, I examine how Communism's `economy of favors' has been transformed into a localized quasi-capitalist economy, which predominantly operates outside the national market economy. Using data from two villages in Tunkinskij Raion of the Buriat Republic in Russia, I look at how people at a micro-sociological level have adapted to current economic conditions. In particular I examine the relationships between informal networks and the ability to intensify agricultural production on household plots, to gain access to a variety of forest resources, and to find seasonal, part-time, or one-time work outside the household and the formal labor market. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Hungarian diversification strategy: Constraints and opportunities

Although agricultural work is declining in Hungary, farming remains an important source of employment. However, the agrarian population should not be regarded as homogenous because many small farms are worked only for subsistence and family income supplement. This is because of prolonged economic crisis which makes for a shortage of job opportunities in other sectors of the economy. Until economic growth accelerates there is a need for transitional solutions to the problem of unemployment. It is argued that the present farming system could be diversified through labour-intensive programmes to provide piped water and drainage in small towns and villages and simultaneously engage many of the long-term unemployed who are no longer entitled to benefit and lack the qualifications for jobs that require special skills. The environment could also be protected by the afforestation of 300–400 000 ha of arable land or its conversion to grassland. Light industry could also generate employment while stimulating the growth of local farm production and the improvement of the infrastructure. Training for unemployed young people should also be a priority if the erosion of rural labour resources is not to become irreversible. A much more proactive approach is needed from government to safeguard rural labour resources and achieve greater integration between forestry, farming and processing. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The political economy of part-time farming

This paper seeks to root the analysis of part-time farming in the political-economic structure of agriculture and the larger economy. While part-time farming is not a new phenomenon, the growing prevalence of part-time farming in the US and other advanced industrial societies bears a strong relationship with the emergence of dualistic agrarian structures. Part-time farming has also been connected with the deconcentration of industry and employment. The political implications of the trend toward part-time farming are explored, with a conclusion that multiple jobholding, while nominally a proletarianization process, may in fact reinforce political conservatism in the countryside. The paper concludes by suggesting that future research on the political economy of part-time farming should place particular emphasis on the political implications of and sexual division of labour on multiple jobholding.     

The effect of land tenure systems on agricultural production: a case study of the land tenancy system in the Okun Area of Kwara State,Nigeria

Since all agricultural systems depend on land, the ownership of, or access to, agricultural land becomes crucial in the consideration of factors which determine agricultural land-use systems. The land tenure system affects agricultural land use and prospects for improvement. This paper examines the structure of the land tenure system in the Okun Area of Kwara State, Nigeria, and its influence on the farming system in that area. It reveals that despite the fact that this is a predominantly agricultural rural community, the operation of the land tenure system is exceptionally liberal and only marginally affects both the size of individual farm holdings and the way the land is cropped. This situation results mainly from two factors. First, the Okun people perceive land as a God-given entity and therefore it is held in trust for Him and second, the population density is very low, with plenty of land to go round. In the present circumstances, large-scale agricultural projects developed in the Okun area over the last decade have been offered land freely by the people rather than finding the land tenure system a hinderance.     

Part-time farming in the developing world: A case of Hobson's choice or the privilege of half a loaf

Existing international literature on part-time farming derives mainly from developed country situtations. The vast and heterogeneous developing world awaits documentation, analysis and interpretation. New approaches will also be required due to different conditions, such as overwhelming dependence on agricultural employment, skewed patterns of access to land and high levels of landlessness. Heritage is also different as are future prospects.Colonial economic management introduced constrained part-time farming. For the native population, poll taxes induced migration to plantations. The Hacienda system in Latin America provides a built-in system of dependent part-time farming. Capitalist farming has been spreading rapidly, sometimes fueled by land reforms, and has boosted the use of the vast class of small farmers, usually part-timers, as a pool of low-cost and docile labour.Trends are not re-assuring. Entrepreneurial agriculture tends to displace small holders from the land and to throw them on to the labour market while at the same time it generally lowers the employment capacity of agriculture through modernization of production. Parttime farming seems as unstable as ever and operates against a secular threat to the employment and income of the vast rural labour force. Part-time farming in the developing world merits deep probing and imaginative assessment.     

Planning and the rural regions of Nigeria

Conclusion Urban and rural development arek inextricably related, that regional planning can play important roles as catalyst for agriculture and rural development; and that a system of growth centres and/or agropolitan policy which can be important in achieving economic growth with social equity, will be far more influential. Again if the National Planning Authority, Regional Planning Agency and the policy of growth centre in the rural areas of the recommended regions is pursued, it will not only increase agricultural productivity or a path to agricultural transformation for deleterious effects of migration to corporate farming but also could, over time help to reduce the pressure on the urban areas by providing counter-magnets to migration and we envisage, will bring about a national regional planning budget which should be operated on yearly basis.     

The spatial perspective of water resource management and economic development in Nigeria

The indispensability of good water supply in the development of a healthy citizenry and consequently its economy is very well known. In Nigeria the last drought that affected areas north of 12^oN has awakened some awareness on the need for good water resource management. Most of the scarce food items in the market are caused by lack of irrigation and total relying on the rhythm of the rain for their cultivation.In this paper the government is reminded of its obligation in the inauguration of a national water resource management (control and usage) policy that will result in integrated development. Water supply in the rural areas will not attract industries, improve agricultural output, but reduce the incidence of water-borne diseases and the rate of rural-urban migration. Improvement in living standards due to good water supply means the development of human capital that can be mobilized for economic development in the country.     

Part-time Farmig in Hungary

Part-time Farming in Hungary plays an important role in agricultural output. It provides 1/3 of gross production, half of the pork production and the majority of such intensive products as wine, fruits and berries, honey, etc. Part-time Farming has two basic forms: the household plots of collective farm members and employees and the small private farms of non-agricultural population. Half of the Hungarian families have such a farm activity, which is largely encouraged by the government. The flexible intregration of large scale (collective) farming and the private part-time farming was one of the keys in the recent agricultural successes of Hungary.     

Population pressure and areas of potential rural development in Southern Nigeria

The spatial analysis of agricultural development is the necessary precondition for research in the rural landscape and for rural planning. Basic data emerging from field investigation and a systematic interpretation of aerial photographs have resulted in a series of thematic maps of Southern Nigeria and parts of Western Cameroon. This comprehensive research work has been organized within the framework of the Afrika-Kartenwerk of the German Research Society.In this paper our recently published population map of the scale of 1:1 million and the map of rural settlement patterns form the basis for some rather general estimates of agricultural potential. Exact spatial information of simple but non the less most important regional processes, like migration, are caused by population pressure. Not bare statistical figures but their transformation by cartographic means forms a fundament for area studies and hypothetical prospects for regional planning as well as for regional analysis.By larger scale observations agricultural carrying capacity, evaluation of rural potential, migration dynamics and changes of land-use systems have to be analyzed. This calls for meticulous studies of individual areas. The first of three such case studies stresses the process of intensification of land utilization near the Nsukka-Escarpment. Linear settlement patterns and chains of regular individually owned stripfields can be seen as inprints of a dynamic transformation within the cultural landscape. Reception of new agricultural technology has been a way for emigrant farmers to exploit traditionally sparsely utilized zones with rich soils, which had been less attractive, because they were hard to cultivate with the hoe.The second case deals with the well known migratory and agro-economic links between the overpopulated food crop belt of Northern Yoruba Savannah Country and the cocoabelt in the rain forest about 100 km further south.In Central Iboland rural overpopulation of more than 1000 persons per km² and land shortage theoretically could be diminished by opening up uninhabited areas of the Niger flood-plain and the delta for modern agricultural exploitation. But not only the physical obstacles such as there are poor soils, very high rainfall and seasonal floods within the Niger low lands are hindering rural colonization. Social and political factors, like ethnic traditions and historic barriers still seem to be very perserverant. All this hardly allows strangers to get hold of unused land, to exploit valuable natural resources or to introduce modern agricultural technology. But generally speaking, population pressure as well as higher demand for social services and better incomes result in changes in the traditional land-use systems. The impact of growing urban or industrial economic spheres on agriculture acts as accelerating factor in this development. A paradise-landscape for Africa where optimal utilization of all physical resources under best socio-economic conditions may be practiced and where more than ten times of the present population of Africa could exist, as CAROL puts it in one of his scenarios (1973 and 1975), seems to be quite unrealistic and really never will be desirable.     

Positive aspects of part-time farming in the development of a professional agriculture: Remarks on the Italian situation

Part-time agriculture is a large, well-developed and persistent phenomenon in Italy. But this is not well known. This paper takes into consideration the Italian literature on part-time farming (PTF) to find a satisfactory definition. The author deals with general problems of rural development, looking at PTF (especially in farm-based households) as a structural phenomenon. The article suggests the farm family instead of the individual farm operator be the unit of analysis and provides new data and estimates based on official statistical sources from 1961 through 1975. There are different typologies of PTF situations according to the internal and external conditions of the family's holdings: transitional PTF, which involves rural and poor families working for domestic production. This type is a form of subsistence farming which attracts State subsidies and public income transfers; accessorial PTF is a form of autoconsumption concerning different families' members. It is generally used to increase family income (sometimes farming is a secondary activity for people employed outside agriculture); professional PTF, based on the family holding's central role, which is a rational way of farming. This last kind of PTF is sometimes more productive, modern (ready of the introduction of innovations) and more competitive than full-time farming: this element could have important implications for the rural development policy in the industrialized countries.     

A rural development strategy for the Apuseni Mountains, Romania

The Apuseni Mountains, part of the Western Carpathians, are distinctive in cultural terms because of the highly dispersed settlement patterns that have developed on the high erosion surfaces where the Moti people cleared the forests to allow for an expansion of family farming in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These small ‘crang’ settlements remain, but the population is declining in the face of limited employment opportunities and poor services. The question arises as to the most appropriate rural development strategy for the region, following the communist period which encouraged centralisation through the provision of housing and industry in key villages and new towns. The emphasis on private farming and the expansion of tourism could protect the inherited cultural landscape but money must be found to improve rural services. There is also a strong conservation movement which supports the establishment of a national park, but this could constrain development through controls on grazing and woodcutting. Hence the dialogue continues to find the best compromise and the concept of a ‘natural park’ is being discussed with such a reconciliation in mind. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The structure and pattern of rurality in Nigeria

The aim of this paper is to describe the rural structure of Nigeria on the basis of some indicators and internationally accepted methodology rather than just the population criterion that is presently used in the country. This is necessary because as is the case in most developing countries, this method of determining the rural structure does not make for comparison between countries. To achieve the aim, 14 indicators were selected from the 2006 Annual Abstract of Statistics and Factor Analysis employed to determine the structure, while the pattern was mapped by Arc View GIS 3.2a software. The factor analysis identified five underlying dimensions which explain 77.6% of the total variance that determine the structure of rurality in Nigeria. Based on the pattern of the factor loadings, five typologies of rural were identified. The research further shows that Nigeria is still dominantly rural. The implications of the findings and the need for concerted efforts on rural development in the country are highlighted.