SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE RESPONSE TEMPERATURE TO TYPHOON MORAKOT (2009) AND ITS INFLUENCE

While previous studies indicate that typhoons can decrease sea surface temperature(SST) along their tracks, a few studies suggest that the cooling patterns in coastal areas are different from those in the open sea. However, little is known about how the induced cooling coupled with the complex ocean circulation in the coastal areas can affect tropical cyclone track and intensity. The sea surface responses to the land falling process of Typhoon Morakot(2009) are examined observationally and its influences on the activity of the typhoon are numerically simulated with the WRF model. The present study shows that the maximum SST cooling associated with Morakot occurred on the left-hand side of the typhoon track during its landfall. Numerical simulations show that, together with the SST gradients associated with the coastal upwelling and mesoscale oceanic vortices, the resulting SST cooling can cause significant difference in the typhoon track, comparable to the current 24-hour track forecasting error. It is strongly suggested that it is essential to include the non-uniform SST distribution in the coastal areas for further improvement in typhoon track forecast.     

“莫拉克”台风（2009）登陆前后强度与结构分析

利用NCEP每日4次全球预报场（GFS）分析资料、卫星云图资料以及实况观测台风路径、强度资料对0908号台风“莫拉克”在台湾登陆前后其强度、结构变化特征进行天气动力学诊断分析,从而为台风强度、结构预报提供参考依据。结果表明:（1） 低层切向风大值区中心所在半径处的切向风非对称性幅度之切向平均值可作为诊断分析台风强度的一个重要参考指标;（2） “莫拉克”中心高层干位涡大值区具有沿着低层切向风大值区中心内侧的切向风梯度密集带向下延伸的趋势;（3） 未考虑摩擦、湍流混合的柱坐标切向风运动方程主要有四项是决定切向风变化的,即切向风径向平流项、切向风垂直输送项、惯性离心力作用项以及地转偏向力作用项;（4） 台风低层辐合中心在切向上具有沿着切向风梯度密集区移动、发展的趋势。      

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS ON THE INTENSITY AND STRUCTURE OF TYPHOON MORAKOT (2009) DURING ITS LANDING PROCESS

NCEP GFS(Global Forecast System)analytical data(available 4 times per day),satellite cloud image data and real-time observations of path and intensity of Typhoon Morakot are employed to investigate the variation of synoptic dynamics in its intensity and structure before and after the landing.This study intends to offer some hints for the forecast of intensity and structure of typhoons.Results show that in the tangential direction,the averaged asymmetry amplitude of wind on the radius of a large-value center of the low-level wind can be used as an important parameter for diagnosing the intensity of typhoons.Besides,the maximum of the upper dry potential vorticity in Morakot’s center tends to extend downward along the intensive gradient of tangential wind situated on the inner side of a large-value center of the low-level tangential wind.Additionally,the radial advection of the tangential wind determines the variation of tangential wind in conjunction with the vertical transmission of the tangential wind,the inertial centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.These four items are dominant in the motion equation of tangential wind based on a cylindrical coordinate without the effects of friction and turbulence.Moreover,the low-level convergence center of the typhoon has a tendency of shifting and developing along the intensive gradient of the tangential wind in the tangential direction.     

SENSITIVITY OF SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE RETRIEVAL TO SEA SURFACE EMISSIVITY

To estimate sea surface temperature(SST)with high accuracy from radiometrie measure-ments,it is no longer acceptable to assume that sea surface emissivity is unity or any other con-stant.This note presents an investigation of the desirable emissivity accuracy in relation to re-trieval.It was found that 1% error in surface emissivity can cause up to 0.7 K error in the re-trieved SST,although this sensitivity is often reduced to about 0.5 K on average because of thedownward atmospheric radiation at surface partially compensates for the emissivity error.Since thedownward atmospheric radiation ratio is controlled to a large extent by the integrated water vaporin the atmosphere and,secondarily,by view angle,the sensitivity of SST retrieval to surface emis-sivity has been computed as a function of these two parameters.     

不同海表面温度对南海台风“杜鹃”的影响试验

采用水平分辨率0.25 °×0.25 °的日平均和周平均的卫星微波成像仪(TMI)和卫星微波辐射计(AMSRE)的海温资料(TMI-AMSRE SST)作为下强迫源,利用中尺度数值模式MM5对南海过境台风"杜鹃"进行了模拟.试验结果表明:台风中心附近SST的差异会导致大气风场的差异,从而使模式对SST有比较快速而且明显的响应;不同的SST对台风的强度和路径都有一定的影响,而对台风降水和台风中心附近潜热通量有明显的影响;不同SST对台风的影响主要是通过改变海-气潜热通量来实现的.     

MICROPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RAINDROP SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN TYPHOON MORAKOT (2009)

Microphysical characteristics of the raindrop size distribution(RSD)in Typhoon Morakot(2009) have been studied through the PARSIVEL disdrometer measurements at one site in Fujian province,China during the passage of the storm from 7 to 10 August 2009.The time evolution of the RSD reveals different segments of the storm.Significant difference was observed in the microphysical characteristics between the outer rainband and the eyewall;the eyewall precipitation had a broader size distribution(a smaller slope) than the outer rainband and eye region.The outer rainband and the eye region produced stratiform rains while the eyewall precipitation was convective or mixed stratiform-convective.The RSD was typically characterized by a single peak distribution and well represented by the gamma distribution.The relations between the shape(μ)and slope(Λ)of the gamma distribution and between the reflectivity(Z)and rainfall rate(R)have been investigated.Based on the NW-Dm relationships,we suggest that the stratiform rain for the outer rainband and the eye region was formed by the melting of graupel or rimed ice particles,which likely originated from the eyewall clouds.     

SPATIAL VARIATION OF WINTER SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN NORTH PACIFIC AND ITS RELATION TO ATMOSPHERIC OSCILLATION MODES

The spatial variation of sea surface temperature anomalies(SSTA) in the North Pacific Ocean during winter is investigated using the EOF decomposition method.The first two main modes of SSTA are associated with Pacific Decadal Oscillation(PDO) mode and North Pacific Gyre Oscillation(NPGO) mode,respectively.Moreover,the first mode(PDO) is switched to the second mode(NPGO),a dominant mode after mid-1980.The mechanism of the modes’ transition is analyzed.As the two oceanic modes are forced by the Aleutian Low(AL) and North Pacific Oscillation(NPO) modes,the AR-1 model is further used to examine the possible effect and mechanism of AL and NPO in generating the PDO and NPGO.The results show that compared to the NPO,the AL plays a more important role in generating the NPGO mode since the 1970s.Likewise,both the AL and NPO affect the PDO mode since the 1980s.     

SENSITIVITY OF PRECIPITATION TO SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND ITS DIURNAL VARIATION: A PARTITIONING ANALYSIS BASED ON SURFACE RAINFALL BUDGET

The sensitivity of precipitation to sea surface temperature(SST) and its diurnal variation is investigated through a rainfall partitioning analysis of two-dimensional cloud-resolving model experiments based on surface rainfall budget.For all experiments,the model is set up using zero vertical velocity and a constant zonal wind and is integrated over 40 days to reach quasi-equilibrium states.The 10-day equilibrium grid-scale simulation data and a time-invariant SST of 29°C are used in the control experiment.In the sensitivity experiments,time-invariant SSTs are 27°C and 31°C with an average value of 29°C when the minimum and maximum values of diurnal SST differences are 1°C and 2°C,respectively.The results show that the largest contribution to total rainfall is from the rainfall with water vapor convergence and local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor gain/divergence(~30%) in all experiments.When SST increases from 27°C to 29°C,the contribution from water vapor convergence decreases.The increase of SST reduces the contribution of the rainfall with water vapor convergence primarily through the decreased contribution of the rainfall with local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor gain/divergence and the rainfall with local atmospheric moistening and hydrometeor loss/convergence.The inclusion of diurnal variation of SST with the diurnal difference of 1°C decreases the rainfall contribution from water vapor convergence primarily through the decreased contribution of the rainfall with local atmospheric moistening and hydrometeor loss/convergence.The contribution of the rainfall from water vapor convergence is barely changed as the diurnal difference of SST increases from 1°C to 2°C.     

MECHANISM FOR THE SUSTAINING ATMOSPHERIC RESPONSE TO WARM WINTERTIME SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALY IN THE KUROSHIO EXTENSION

Sensitivity experiments with atmospheric general circulation model CAM3 have been performed to investigate the atmospheric response to warm wintertime sea surface temperature anomalies in the Kuroshio Extension (KE). Mechanism for the sustaining abnormal atmospheric response to sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) is revealed. It is found that the warm wintertime SSTA in KE leads to soil moisture changes across the Asia continent. The abnormal soil moisture may possibly be one of the reasons for the sustaining of abnormal atmospheric response intrigued by SSTA. Oscillations of perturbations intrigued by warm wintertime SSTA in KE, which have similar frequencies with that of intrinsic atmospheric oscillations, are superposed on the atmospheric oscillations and propagate with primary periodic oscillation of the atmosphere. These SSTA-intrigued oscillations are coupled with natural atmospheric oscillation and finally become parts of it. This is probably another reason for the sustaining of abnormal atmospheric response to SSTA in KE.     

VARIATIONS OF SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND SEA LEVEL PRESSURE OVER PACIFIC AND INDIAN OCEANS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON COLD SUMMER IN EAST ASIA

An EOF analysis was performed to investigate the variations of sea surface temperature (SST) of Pacific and Indian Oceans.Result shows that the distribution of SST anomaly exhibits a distinct anticorrelation pattern between Northwest and Southeast Pacific,as well as between Northwest Pacific and the Arabian Sea.It also shows that the sea level pressure (SLP) anomaly between North Pacific and North Indian Oceans is of a seesaw pattern,which we named the North Paci-fic and North Indian Ocean Oscillation (PIO).Such a phenomenon is closely correlated with the cold summer in East Asia.     

北极海冰与赤道东太平洋海温的相互影响及其与El Nino的联系

对北极海冰面积与赤道东太平洋海温作了交叉相关分析，揭示了北极海冰与赤道东太平洋海温间相互影响的关系及其时空特点，并讨论了Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ与北极海冰间的联系。结果表明，北极Ⅴ－Ⅵ区冬季海冰面积能够对以后冬季的赤道东太平洋海温产生持续的影响，而北极Ⅶ区夏秋季的海冰面积能够影响来年夏秋季的海温；赤道东太平洋海温对海冰的影响表现为前期海温能够影响北极Ｉ区春季海冰的消融。此外，前期北极海冰状况对Ｅｌ Ｎｉｎｏ     

TROPICAL SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALY AND INDIAN SUMMER MONSOON

The time series of the sea surface temperature(SST)anomaly,covering the eastern(western)equatorial Pacific,central Indian Ocean,Arabian Sea.Bay of Bengal and South ChinaSea(SCS),have been analyzed by using wavelet transform.Results show that there exists sameinterdeeadal variability of SST in the tropical Pacific and tropical Indian Ocean,and also show thatthe last decadal abrupt change occurred in the 1970s.On the interannual time scale,there is asimilar interannual variability among the equatorial central Indian Ocean and the adjacent three seabasins(Arabian Sea.Bay of Bengal and South China Sea).but the SST interannual changes of theIndian Ocean lagged 4—5 months behind that of the equatorial central-east Pacific.Meanwhile,the interannual variability and long-range change between SST anomaly and Indian summermonsoon rainfall in recent decades have been explained and analyzed.It indicates that there existeda wet(dry)period in India when the tropical SST was lower(higher)than normal,but there wasa lag of phase between them.     

南海海温异常对七月份中国气候的影响及数值试验

通过气候资料分析和GCM数值模拟试验,发现七月份中国雨量距平分布异常与南海海温异常有关。长江流域及黄河以南雨量在海温正距平时比负距平时大,华南地区相反。这种分布特征与海温正距平时西太平洋副高西伸加强、负距平时副高偏东减弱有关。南海海温不但对东边系统(副高)有影响,而且对西边系统(印度季风)也有影响。      

中国西北春季降水与太平洋海温相关特征的研究

应用奇异值分解对中国西北3-5月的降水资料与太平洋海温进行了相关分析。结果表明：北太平洋与中国西北春季降水有较好的相关,在太平洋海温3-5月呈El Nino峰值位相时,除青海高原外,中国西北地区降水偏水;而当12-2月的海温呈El Nino成熟位相型时,次年西北地区3-5月的降水偏多;而当北太平洋海温12-2月呈La Nina型时,次年青海高原区3-5月的降水偏少。太平洋海温的西风漂流区、黑潮区、加利福尼亚海流区和北赤道海流区的海温的变化与中国西北地区3-5月的降水之间有明显的相关关系。其中黑潮区12-2月的海温与新疆北部的降水呈反相变化,即当黑潮区的海温低时,西北地区的新疆北部降水偏多。中国西北地区3-5月的降水对太平洋温变化的响应区主要的新疆北部、青海高原及其东北侧、沙漠盆地、河西西部等地。     

太平洋-印度洋海温异常模态及其指数定义的初步研究

通过对太平洋地区海温场的经验正交函数分解,分析其第一特征向量场发现,春夏秋冬四季在印度洋中西部大范围地区、赤道中东太平洋的大范围地区的海面温度西太平洋地区的相反,这一特征向量在四个季节的方差贡献率均大于33%,说明这一海温场的空间分布结构是稳定的,我们称之为太平洋-印度洋海温异常模态.并对这种模态经过认真分析比较和研究后定义了该模态的指数.     

印度洋春、夏季海温对西藏高原夏季降水的影响

利用NCEP提供的1950—1997年全球月平均海表面温度场资料，首先通过EOF分解得到不同季节印度洋海温场空间分布特征，并在此基础上使用合成分析、相关分析和SVD分解等多种方法讨论了印度洋前期和同期海温异常与西藏高原夏季降水变化的关系。寻找出影响高原夏季降水的关键海区，目的为高原夏季早涝预测提供参考依据。     

南亚夏季风典型强弱年与阿拉伯海海温

利用NCEP／NCAR 1958～1997年全球SST、850hPa与200hPa风场再分析资料,以及1958-1997年全印度降水指数资料,从环流与降水两方面定义出南亚夏季风典型强年为1961、1970年,典型弱年为1965、1979、1987年。并针对所定义的强弱年采用合成分析与相关分析方法,分析了南亚夏季风强弱年前期与同期的阿拉伯海海温变化特征,发现：4月阿拉伯海海温越高（低）,南亚夏季风越强（弱）,而7月相反,海温越高（低）,季风越弱（强）;在南亚夏季风典型强年,阿拉伯海海温年变幅较大;沿赤道的Yoshida-Wyrtki Jet较强,并且在南亚夏季风强年的前期4月,南北半球哈德莱环流较弱,而弱年较强。7月,不论强弱年,热带印度洋上空的经圈环流以南亚夏季风经圈环流为主。     

TYPICAL STRONG AND WEAK SOUTH ASIAN SUMMER MONSOON YEARS AND SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF ARABIAN SEA

1 INTRODUCTIONThe South Asian Summer Monsoon (SASM) is animportant member of the monsoon system for Asia. It ismade up of low-level subsystems of the Mascarenehigh in the Southern Hemisphere, cross-equatorialSomali jet stream, 850-hPa westerly jet over theArabian Sea,Indian monsoon trough north of the Bayof Bengal through west India and upper-level tropicaleasterly jet centered at 5°N and South Asia highcentered at 30°N[1]. During the summer monsoon,convection is intense in Sou…     

ANALYSES OF WIND STRUCTURE OF TYPHOON FUNG-WONG (2008) AND ITS RELATION TO PRECIPITATION REGION

Using real analysis data of 1°×1° resolution of the National Center for EnvironmentalPrediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR), the nondivergent wind componentand irrotational wind component obtained by the harmonic-cosine(H-C) method, and the wind structure ofTyphoon Fung-Wong (coded 0808 in China) in 2008 was analyzed. The results indicated that theirrotational component was advantageous over the total wind in reflecting both the changes in convergentheight and the asymmetrical convergence of Fung-Wong. In Fung-Wong, the nondivergent component waslarger than the irrotational component, but the latter was much more variable than the former, which wasobtained only from the wind partition method. Further analyses on the irrotational componentdemonstrated that the location of the convergent center at lower levels was almost the same as thedivergent center during the development of Fung-Wong, and its convergent level was high in its life cycle,with the most highest up to 400 hPa when it became stronger. After the typhoon landed in the provinces ofTaiwan and Fujian, respectively, its convergent center at lower levels was slowly detached from thedivergent center at high levels and the convergent height was also depressed from high levels to lowerlevels. Gradually, this weakened the intensity of Fung-Wong. This kind of weakening was slow andFung-Wong maintained its circulation for a long time over land because of its very thick convergent height.Analyses on wind partitioning provided one possible explanation to why Fung-Wong stayed for a long timeafter it landed. Furthermore, the asymmetric vertical ascending motion was induced by the asymmetricconvergence at lower levels. In general, when typhoons (such as Fung-Wong) land, the rainfall regioncoincides with that of the convergence region (indicated by the irrotational component at lower layers).This means that the possible rainfall regions may be diagnosed from the convergent area of the irrotationalcomponent. For an observational experiment on typhoons, the convergent region may be considered as akey observational region.