Estimation of water quality parameters from irradiance reflectance using optical models

In order to evaluate near-surface water quality parameters from spectral irradiance reflectance observed just below the surface, models of both radiative transfer and optical properties of sea water are used. The computed water quality parameters are compared with those determined directly from concurrent surface water samples. In this comparison, efforts have been made to minimize the number of spectral irradiance reflectance used in the computation while ensuring that the computed water quality parameters fit well to the observed ones.The observed water quality parameters were found to be closely represented by those computed from the irradiance reflectance at wavelengths of 400 nm, 440 nm, 510 nm and 600 nm, and the fit is as good as the fit of observed water quality parameters to those computed from the irradiance reflectances at 151 wavelengths located between 400 nm and 700 nm at intervals of 2 nm. This implies that the water quality parameters can be evaluated from at least four radiances observed at high altitude, if the effects of the atmosphere and the sea surface can be correctly removed.     

Analysis of ocean color spectra (III)

The spectral measurements of the attenuation coefficient of sea water and the absorption coefficient of suspended particles and of yellow substance were made with a spectrophotometer for the sea waters sampled in Tokyo Bay. These parameters can be used to compute the expected spectral irradiance reflectance. Some relationships between the optical properties of sea water and the concentration of dissolved organic carbon, the dry weight of suspended matter and chlorophyll-a concentration are presented. On the basis of these results, the possibility of modelling the relationship between optical and material properties is discussed.     

海面光谱辐射计系统研制及遥感反射比的测量

本文报道海面光谱辐射计的研制、定标和海上现场实验测量。运用一个 2 5 6元光电二极管列阵传感器件测量海面离水辐亮度和向下辐照度的光谱分布 ,可计算得出遥感反射比。该仪器所测量的数据可以用于海洋方面相关专业的科学研究 ,并给出海上实验测量数据     

Analysis of ocean color spectra (I)

By using the two-flow optical model, the variation in the irradiance reflectance of the ocean just below the surface has been calculated for varying water optical properties, for the interpretation of remotely-sensed ocean color data. The input variables used in our model are the concentration of phytoplankton (chlorophyll-a), the absorption coeffiicient of yellow substance, the particle scattering coefficient, the ratio of the back-scattering coefficient to the total scattering coefficient of particles, and the ratio of the absorption to scattering coefficients for particles.The irradiance reflectance increases monotonically with the ratio of the back-scattering coefficient to the total scattering coefficient. Spectral changes occur in the irradiance reflectance for increases in chlorophyll-a concentration and yellow substance as well as the ratio of the absorption to scattering coefficients.Because slightly different mathematical expressions have been derived by other investigators using the two-flow model, an evaluation of the resulting calculation differences is presented and discussed.     

水下光辐射测量的阴影效应及其校正方法研究

用后向Monte Carlo模拟方法计算多仪器水下光学系统测量水体向上辐亮度和辐照度时由测量系统阴影导致的误差,给出了这种误差与入射太阳光相对于仪器的水平方位角之间的关系,给出了测量船对测量的影响与入射太阳光天顶角之间的关系.提出了一种辐亮度仪器自阴影误差的多光谱校正方法,模拟结果表明校正后误差小于5%.     

分层水体对表层辐照度比影响的蒙特卡罗分析

众多海洋观测数据表明,在真光层深度范围内,海水固有光学特性和光学有效组分的剖面分层分布是广泛存在的,而很多遥感反演模型的建立基于均一分布假设,尤其是在经验模型的建立中,往往只利用某一深度或各深度平均的光学有效组分浓度与水体光谱的统计关系。文章通过模拟平静水面水下光的辐射传输,分别研究了叶绿素、无机悬浮物浓度垂直分布结构对水下辐照度比的影响,并对比了两类分层水体权重函数等效浓度计算式及相应水下辐照度比,结果表明,对于分层水体,透射深度和层化强度是影响等效浓度值计算误差的主要因素,透射越深,表层层化越强,水体层化对水下辐照度比的影响就越大,但其计算误差也越大。Gondon等效浓度计算结果比较接近实际值,而Zaneveld计算式则高估了分层水体的等效浓度值。     

乌梁素海沉水植物群落光谱特征及其受覆盖度的影响分析

沉水植物是湖泊生态系统重要组成,也是水质与健康状况的指标性类群,可以采用遥感技术对其生长和分布情况进行监测.基于实测光谱数据,分析了乌梁素海沉水植物光谱特征,研究了覆盖度对乌梁素海沉水植物反射光谱的影响,建立了乌梁素海沉水植物覆盖度反演模型.结果 表明;沉水植物群落的光谱反射率随覆盖度减少而下降,覆盖度为1％～20％时...     

Observations of natural fluorescence with an underwater radiometer

Measurements of subsurface irradiance spectra in the ocean consistently indicate intensities of long-wavelength visible light (589 nm) greater than could be derived from the penetration of sunlight. This can be attributed to natural fluorescence and/or to spectral crosstalk due to light leakage through the blocking filters of each discrete detector. A comparison of observed profiles with modelled contributions from these two possible sources indicates that both factors are contributing. At 671 and 694 nm wavelength, the excess signal appears to be predominantly fluorescence while that at 589 nm is mostly crosstalk. Both effects appear to be important at 625 nm although the amount of excess light is small compared to the other wavelengths.The above observations and interpretations are consistent with the optical design of the instrument used and the shape of natural irradiance spectra. Fluorescence efficiencies derived from the irradiance measurements correlate well with measuredin situ fluorescence.     

Energetics and growth kinetics of a deep Prochlorococcus spp. population in the Arabian Sea

During the US JGOFS process studies in the Arabian Sea (1995), secondary fluorescence maxima (SFM) were observed frequently at the oxic–anoxic interface at the extreme base of the euphotic zone. These secondary peaks were most prominent during the early NE monsoon in the central oligotrophic portion of the Arabian Sea, although they were spatially and temporally variable. Based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and flow cytometry analyses, SFM were determined to be populated almost exclusively by the marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus spp. While SFM were about half the magnitude of primary fluorescence peaks, chlorophyll a biomass was typically an order of magnitude less than at the primary maxima (although total chlorophyll (a+b) differed only by a factor of two). Photosynthesis versus irradiance response curves revealed an efficient population adapted to extremely low light (∼0.02–0.05% surface irradiance) largely through increased light absorption capabilities. A theoretical spectral irradiance absorption efficiency model based on available spectral irradiance, individual cell properties, and bulk particulate spectral absorption also supports a well-adapted low-light population. Deck-incubated C-14 uptake as well as dilution growth experiments revealed instantaneous growth rates on the order of μ=0.01 d⁻¹. However, additional in situ observations suggest SFM populations may be more dynamic than the growth rates estimates from shipboard bottle incubations predict. We advance four hypotheses for the regulation of SFM populations including: (1) reduced loss rates, (2) discontinuous environmental conditions, (3) enhanced sub-oxic growth, and (4) physical mechanisms.     

Quantitative estimation of intertidal sediment characteristics using remote sensing and GIS

High spatial resolution satellite data (IKONOS) combined with in situ data was used to quantitatively estimate the spatial distribution of tidal flat characteristics for the Hwangdo tidal flat, Cheonsu Bay, Korea. The classification result was accurate in terms of a comparison with the in situ data, and the overall accuracy was 90.7%, which confirmed the validity of the classification. GIS analysis based on a probabilistic model was applied to a quantitative estimation of the relationship between each surface sediment facies and the spectral reflectance. Mud flat facies showed a high positive correlation (R² = 0.91), and sand flat facies showed a high negative correlation (R² = 1.00), which was a good reflection of the sedimentary characteristics of Hwangdo tidal flat. Relationships between each sediment facies and DEM also showed good agreement with the topographic characteristics in the study area. The study revealed that intertidal surface sediment classification using high resolution remote sensing imagery and in situ data successfully shows spectral and topographic characteristics of the study area. It was noted that spectral reflectance was affected by a combination of environmental factors, including grain size, topography, and remnant surface water. It is possible to determine the type of tidal flat through quantitative estimates of the spatial distribution of surface sediments according to their spectral reflectance.     

Characterization of the solar light field within the ocean mesopelagic zone based on radiative transfer simulations

The solar light field within the ocean from the sea surface to the bottom of the mesopelagic zone was simulated with a radiative transfer model that accounts for the presence of inelastic radiative processes associated with Raman scattering by water molecules, fluorescence of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), and fluorescence of chlorophyll-a contained in phytoplankton. The simulation results provide a comprehensive characterization of the ambient light field and apparent optical properties (AOPs) across the entire visible spectral range within the depth range 200–1000 m of the entire mesopelagic zone for varying chlorophyll-a concentration and seawater optical properties in the mixed surface layer of the ocean. With increasing depth in the mesopelagic zone, the solar irradiance is reduced by ~9–10 orders of magnitude and exhibits a major spectral maximum in the blue, typically centered around a light wavelength of 475 nm. In the green and red spectral regions, the light levels are significantly lower but still important owing to local generation of photons via inelastic processes, mostly Raman scattering and to a lesser extent CDOM fluorescence. The Raman scattering produces a distinct secondary maximum in irradiance spectra centered around 565 nm. Comparisons of our results with light produced by the radioactive decay of the unstable potassium isotope contained in sea salt (⁴⁰K) indicates that the solar irradiance dominates over the ⁴⁰K-produced irradiance within the majority of the mesopelagic zone for most scenarios considered in our simulations. The angular distribution of radiance indicates the dominance of downward propagation of light in the blue and approach to uniform distribution in the red throughout the mesopelagic zone. Below the approximate depth range 400–500 m, the shape of the angular distribution is nearly invariant with increasing depth in the green and red and varies weakly in the blue. The AOPs at any light wavelength also assume nearly constant values within the deeper portion of the mesopelagic zone. These results indicate that the mesopelagic light field reaches a nearly-asymptotic regime at depths exceeding ~400–500 m.     

Microphytobenthos vertical migratory photoresponse as characterised by light-response curves of surface biomass

The migratory response of intertidal microphytobenthos to changes in irradiance was studied on undisturbed estuarine sediments. Two non-destructive optical techniques were used to trace variations in vivo of surface biomass: PAM fluorometry, for measuring the minimum fluorescence level (F_o); and spectral reflectance analysis, for quantifying the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Following the formation of a dense biofilm at the surface, replicated sediment samples were simultaneously exposed to six different irradiance levels, ranging from 50 to 1500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, during a period of 120 min. The migratory photoresponse of the biofilms was characterised by constructing biomass vs. light curves (BLC), relating the accumulation of microalgal biomass after that period (estimated by F_o or NDVI) to the irradiance level incident on the surface. BLCs allow characterising the main features of the migratory photoresponse of intact biofilms. Typical BLC showed a clear biphasic pattern, with an increase in microalgal accumulation under irradiances below 100 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, maximum values under 100–250 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, and a gradual decrease of surface biomass under higher irradiances, indicating a strong photophobic downward migratory response. Similar BLC patterns were obtained when measuring F_o or NDVI. The construction of BLCs for biofilms from intertidal sites with distinctive sediment characteristics and diatom taxonomic composition allowed to detected significant differences in the migratory photoresponse. Biofilms from a muddy sediment exhibited considerably larger amplitude in the migratory photoresponse than the biofilms from a sandy mud site, especially under high irradiances. The photophobic migratory response to high light was found to vary among diatom species, particularly in the case of the biofilms from the muddy sediments.     

水下光谱辐射计光学特性的测试与分析

为适应高精度水下光学测量的需求，设计研制了多通道水下光谱辐射计。该辐射计可同步测量12波段的下行／上行光谱辐照度和7波段的上行光谱辐亮度。对该辐射计的主要性能指标，如余弦响应特性、浸没因子、光谱辐射精度、稳定性和重复性进行了室内测试和分析，用MonteCarlo方法模拟了阴影误差，给出并分析了现场实验数据及部分推导的物理量。结果表明，该光谱辐射计各波段的中心波长和带宽偏差小于1．6nm，稳定性优于5％，阴影误差可控制在5％之内，具有良好的余弦响应特性，满足当前定量化水色遥感现象光辐射测量的技术要求。     

削弱水分影响的潮滩表层沉积物遥感分类方法研究

潮滩沉积物中的水分掩盖了沉积物本身的光谱信息,不利于沉积物遥感分类。利用江苏大丰潮滩沉积物在不同含水量下的398条实测光谱曲线数据,基于线性光谱分解方法定量化分析了沉积物光谱对含水量变化的响应,建立削弱水分影响的潮滩表层沉积物组分(砂、粉砂、黏土)含量反演模型,应用于Hyperion高光谱遥感影像,获得沉积物组分的空间分布,并结合Shepard三角分类法实现了潮滩表层沉积物的自动分类。研究结果表明:(1)当沉积物含水量增加时,沉积物光谱中水分权重以含水量的2倍速率增加,含水量大于25%,则水分对光谱的影响占主导作用;(2)2 143 nm波段反射率对沉积物的含水量变化敏感,利用2 143 nm波段反射率进行潮滩沉积物的含水量反演,模型拟合度r2可达0.81;(3)983,1 134 nm波段反射率对沉积物组分含量反演敏感,将含水量与沉积物组分敏感波段一起建立多元线性回归方程,可有效削弱水分的影响,适用于高含水量潮滩区的沉积物组分含量反演;(4)将组分反演结果结合Shepard分类,可实现潮滩沉积物分类,得到潮滩沉积物类型的空间分布特征,分类精度为75.93%,Kappa系数为0.6。     

利用混合光谱分解估测珠江口悬浮泥沙浓度

利用遥感技术估测水体中的悬浮泥沙的浓度已经成为一门成熟的技术,但将其应用于河口地区悬浮泥沙的监测仍然存在一些限制。限制之一是遥感数据（例如MODIS）的空间分辨率太低,不适合应用于河口等狭小水域的监测。相比较而言,Hyperion高光谱遥感数据有196个波段,覆盖400-2500nm的光谱范围,光谱分辨率为10nm,空间分辨率为30m,其高光谱分辨率及高空间分辨率,显示了其在河口水体悬浮泥沙遥感中的巨大潜力。利用2006年12月4号的Hyperion数据、同步实测的高光谱数据及悬浮泥沙浓度数据,对珠江口海域悬浮泥沙浓度进行了研究。利用混合光谱分解模型计算了珠江口悬浮泥沙浓度的分布。分析结果表明,混合光谱分解模型可以作为遥感监测水体悬浮泥沙浓度的定量模型。     

Comparison of marine insolation estimating methods in the adriatic sea

We compare insolation results calculated from two well-known empirical formulas (Seckel and Beaudry’s SB73 formula and the original Smithsonian (SMS) formula) and a radiative transfer model using input data predicted from meteorological weather-forecast models, and review the accuracy of each method. Comparison of annual mean daily irradiance values for clear-sky conditions between the two formulas shows that, relative to the SMS, the SB73 underestimates spring values by 9 W m^-2 in the northern Adriatic Sea, although overall there is a good agreement between the annual results calculated with the two formulas. We also elucidate the effect on SMS of changing the ‘Sun-Earth distance factor (f)’, a parameter which is commonly assumed to be constant in the oceanographic context. Results show that the mean daily solar radiation for clear-sky conditions in the northern Adriatic Sea can be reduced as much as 12 W m^-2 during summer due to a decrease in thef value. Lastly, surface irradiance values calculated from a simple radiative transfer model (GM02) for clear-sky conditions are compared to those from SB73 and SMS. Comparison within situ data in the northern Adriatic Sea shows that the GM02 estimate gives more realistic surface irradiance values than SMS, particularly during summer. Additionally, irradiance values calculated by GM02 using the buoy meteorological fields and ECMWF (The European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts) meteorological data show the suitability of the ECMWF data usage. Through tests of GM02 sensitivity to key regional meteorological factors, we explore the main factors contributing significantly to a reduction in summertime solar irradiance in the Adriatic Sea.     

黄河口海域悬沙光谱特征的研究

分析了５７组含沙水体光谱反射曲线特征，定量描述悬浮水体光谱反射峰值处波长的“红移”现象。在此基础上得出黄河口区野外实测悬浮体含量与光谱反射率呈较好的相关关系，相关系数为０．８９，且在４个波段中，ＭＳＳ７相关系数最低，ＭＳＳ６最高。因而用分段回归或复相关模式来研究悬沙含量，效果较好。文中最后讨论了提高遥感信息－悬沙相关关系精度的方法，提出增加参与回归模型参数的设想，特别是增加悬沙粒度参数。     

Evaluation of GOCI sensitivity for At-Sensor radiance and GDPS-Retrieved chlorophyll-a products

The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or sensitivity) of an ocean color instrument is a critical parameter to determine the accuracy and precision of the data products. Yet published literature showed various formats in SNR specifications under different conditions, making a direct cross-sensor comparison difficult. Here, we compared the SNRs of GOCI spectral bands with those of SeaWiFS and MODIS/Aqua under the same radiance inputs. We also compared their ability to resolve small changes in the retrieved chlorophyll-a data products (Chl). While GOCI visible bands showed similar at-sensor SNRs to SeaWiFS, the near-infrared (NIR) bands showed significantly higher SNRs. Because the NIR bands were used for atmospheric correction, the increases in SNRs led to reduced noise in the retrieved Chl, as shown in the GOCI and SeaWiFS Chl products for Chl < 0.1 mg m^?3. The noise in the retrieved products also depends on the retrieval algorithms in addition to the sensor SNR. When a new band-subtraction algorithm (the Ocean Color Index or OCI algorithm) was applied to the same GOCI remotesensing reflectance data derived from the GDPS software package, significant noise reduction was found in the Chl product for low concentrations (< 0.25 mg m^?3), leading to product precision (??3% in Chl) comparable to those from MODIS/Aqua measurements. This is certainly a significant achievement, as GOCI spatial resolution is much higher than MODIS (500 m versus 1 km). In addition, artifacts across image mosaic edges over low-concentration waters have been removed nearly completely by the OCI algorithm. Data analyses also indicated that GOCI radiometric calibration requires further improvement.     

Spectral variations in upwelling radiant intensity in turbid coastal waters

The spectral characteristics of visible light upwelling from turbid coastal waters were examined separately by means of both in situ and remote optical sensors. Increasing concentrations of suspended sediment were found to be associated with a migration of the in situ peak in spectral intensity towards longer (red) wavelengths. The water colour changes at long wavelengths were preserved at satellite altitudes without significant degradation of the spectral shift by the atmosphere making it possible to interpret directly three commonly used Landsat algorithms in terms of the changes in the upwelling in situ spectra. It was determined that more than one Landsat algorithm was necessary to follow the spectral shift of the sediments. For suspended sediments in the Bay of Fundy in the concentration range 5–50 mg 1⁻¹, in situ, aircraft and satellite studies all indicated that a ratio of Landsat band 4 to band 5 was optimum for monitoring the spectral changes associated with the sediments. Successful use of the Landsat system was attributed to the high reflectance and optimum colour changes associated with the Bay of Fundy suspended sediments     

Estimating the compensation irradiance in the ocean: The importance of accounting for non-photosynthetic uptake of inorganic carbon

The compensation irradiance, the irradiance at which net photosynthesis is zero over a 24-h period, was estimated at station ALOHA (22°45′N, 158°W) from analysis of ¹⁴C uptake rates measured from 8 January 1989 to 13 June 1990 at depths ranging from 5 to 175 m. The estimates were made on the basis of linear regressions of the difference between light bottle and dark bottle ¹⁴C uptake in the light-limited region of the euphotic zone and determination of the depth at which the difference between the uptake rates was zero. About half of the non-photosynthetic ¹⁴C uptake at the compensation irradiance could be attributed to chemolithoautotrophy; the remainder was presumably due to anaplerotic processes. Deriving the compensation irradiance by extrapolating dawn-to-dawn light-bottle uptake above the compensation irradiance to zero resulted in underestimation of the compensation irradiance by a factor of 2. We estimated the compensation irradiance at station ALOHA to be 0.054 mol-photons m⁻² d⁻¹, about 0.11% of surface 400–700 nm radiation and 1% of surface 475-nm (blue) light.