Delineation of intrinsic geological units

Conventional methods for the estimation of mineral resources potential are broadly subdivided into two groups: subjective models based upon ore genetic theories and objective models based upon multiple geological observations. This paper examines some objective means that brings the two types of model together and jointly utilizes the information from both ore genesis and geological observations in delineation of promising areas for mineral exploration. These promising areas are here referred to as intrinsic geological units. They are so-called because they are not identified directly with respect to mineral deposits, but delineated in terms of some critical genetic factor, a necessary condition for formation of the mineral deposits. Four major steps are involved in this analysis. First, establish the structure of critical genetic factor-recognition criteria-multiple geodata for the deposit type of interest. Next, estimate probabilities of occurrence of each of the recognition criteria based upon geological observations. Third, a synthesized probability measure for occurrence of critical genetic factor is determined as an optimum linear combination of the probabilities estimated in the second stage. Finally, intrinsic geological units are delineated by optimally discretizing the probability measure for the critical genetic factor. This estimation procedure is formulated into a three-stage optimization model: logistic regression-quadratic programming-optimum discretization, which is demonstrated with a case study on epithermal Au-Ag mineral deposits in the Walker Lake quadrangle of California and Nevada. In this case study, heat source is selected as the critical genetic factor and it is identified by three selected recognition criteria: Au-Ag mineral occurrence, Tertiary intrusive, and hydrothermal alteration. The intrinsic geological units for epithermal Au-Ag deposits are delineated on the basis of six different preprocessed and integrated geological, geochemical, and geophysical fields.     

Quantitative analysis of anomalous sources and geochemical signatures in the Walker Lake quadrangle of Nevada and California

A new quantitative transportation model for geochemical elements in stream sediment samples is proposed and used to estimate mineral sources of anomalous concentrations and to adjust both location and concentration for the transportation effect. Subsequent to transportation analysis, data on 14 geochemical elements in the Walker Lake quadrangle are analyzed for geochemical signatures for three types of mineralization environments: epithermal gold-silver deposits, porphyry-skarn copper deposits, and a mixed occurrence. Geochemical signatures are analyzed using a multidimensional scaling method referred to as the p_ijk model, which is a factor-like model generalized to include nonlinear associations, as well as linear, among triple variables (elements). A result of this analysis is that Pb is the best indicator for epithermal gold-silver mineralization, Mo and Zn for mixed mineralization, and Cu for porphyry-skarn mineralization.     

Estimation of exploration potential of a metallogenic unit by parametric modeling of the distribution of mineral occurrences when exploration is incomplete. Case study: Walker Lake quadrangle of Nevada and California

Analysis of the distribution of ore-bodies in space can be useful generally in the estimation of mineral resources or the management of exploration. This study is directed to analysis of the undiscovered potential of well known areas of mining district size, referred to as metallogenic units (MUs). The analysis employs an effort-adjusted and truncated probability model for number of occurrences within a subdivision (quadrat) of a MU and Monte Carlo sampling to generate an approximation to the probability distribution for number of occurrences and number of mines within an MU when it is totally explored. Exploration potential for Monitor, Bodie, Aurora, and Camp Douglas MUs (Walker Lake quadrangle of Nevada and California) are estimated to be 9, 4, 7, and 4 mines, respectively.     

Assessment of undiscovered nickel sulphide resources,Kalgoorlie Terrane,Western Australia: Part 1. Deposit and endowment density models

The use of mineral deposit density regression models to estimate the number of undiscovered deposits is gaining acceptance in mineral resources assessments. The deposit density regression models currently in use are based on well-established power law relationships between deposit density (deposits/km²) and the areal extent of the host rocks in well explored regions (control areas) worldwide. Although these generalized or global deposit density models can generate guideline estimates that are useful at the terrane scale, locally-derived terrane-based deposit density regression models may potentially yield more relevant estimates at the terrane scale. Using 12 selected komatiite-defined control areas in the Kalgoorlie Terrane, Western Australia, we found that the size (km²) of the control areas had power law relationships with (i) nickel sulphide deposit density, and (ii) nickel endowment density (nickel metal/km²). Regression analyses showed that both power law relationships are statistically significant at the 5% level. This suggests that nickel sulphide deposit and endowment density models could be used to estimate the number of undiscovered nickel sulphide deposits and amount of nickel metal endowment in less explored komatiites in the Kalgoorlie Terrane. This study shows that global geological relationships can be viably downscaled onto local geological terranes thereby supporting the hypothesis that the processes of mineral deposit formation and preservation are scale-independent and self-similar.     

Areal value assessment of the mineral resources endowment of Israel

The achievements of the mineral industry of Israel and an overall reconnaissance of the natural resources endowment of the country have been evaluated by the areal value estimation method, using the COMOD software package. In broad terms, the evaluation relies on geological variables obtained from quantifying the geological map of a region and on cumulative past production records, which, when prorated per unit area, yield a series of unit regional values (u.r.v.)measurements for individual commodities, resource sectors, and total resources. The two groups of variables facilitate conducting comparisons with other well-developed and/or geologically similar regions from which the future potential of the region, with respect to both overall endowment and individual commodities, can be assessed. The model underlying this appraisal method assumes that all regions above a size of about 5,000 sq kms are equally valuable with respect to total endowment in natural resources, regardless of inherent geological characteristics. To date, several areal value estimation studies have been carried out for 11 different countries, encompassing a total of 111 politically-administratively defined regions. These studies provide an adequate information base for between-region comparisons. The individual states of the United States, constituting what can be regarded as well-developed regions, may serve as an expectation for all such comparisons. The distribution of the u.r.v. of total resources of the individual states is lognormal with a geometric mean of 54,954 1967 U.S. dollars per square kilometer. Based on the above assumption, this value can serve as a conservative estimate for the total output any region can be expected to produce. Thirty different mineral commodities are known to exist in Israel. Of these, 19 are economically exploited and the remaining 11 are at present uneconomical mineral occurrences. Past production records have been obtained and assembled for 14 of the exploited commodities. From these records, a number of statistics were computed to evaluate the development of the mineral industry of the country and its future potential. In absolute figures, the overall cumulative production has been rather small, amounting to only 1,679.8 million deflated 1967 U.S. dollars (equivalent to 2,082 million current U.S. dollars or 10,260 million current Israeli pounds). Only bromine, potash, and phosphate are of worldwide significance, amounting respectively to 10, 2.9, and 1 percent of the world production in 1977. Construction materials, with the longest production history, have been the most valuable, accounting for 53.6 percent of the total cumulative output. They are followed by nonmetals (34.7 percent),metals (8 percent)and fuels (3.7 percent).The value-ranking of individual commodities and their respective contribution to the total cumulative output is: cement, 35 percent; potash, 19 percent; stone, 15 percent; phosphate, 11 percent; copper, 8 percent; sand and gravel, 4 percent; bromine, 3 percent; petroleum, 2.5 percent; natural gas, 1 percent; periclase, 0.7 percent; salt, 0.4 percent; and glass sand, 0.2 percent. Total annual output for the period 1948–1977 exhibited a constant growth with no indication of approaching a plateau of diminishing returns. As new commodities became exploited, the share of constructional materials in the total output gradually declined from 100 percent in 1948 to 45 percent in 1977. The contribution of the mineral industry to the annual gross national product rose steadily from 0.55 percent in 1951 to 2.2 percent in 1964. Thereafter, it fluctuated around an average of about 1.8 percent. Total output and production of constructional materials correlate very highly with both gross national product (GNP)and population size. However, when only the annual changes in these variables are considered, the correlation coefficients are found to be insignificant. The u.r.v. of Israel (with an area of 20,700 sq kms and a population of 3,653,000)is 81,154 deflated 1967 U.S. dollars per sq km. It exceeds the expected value for well-developed regions. It can therefore be concluded that Israel is not exceptionally poor in natural resources, as is commonly felt. On the other hand, its high u.r.v. also implies (unfortunately)that the development potential of its mineral industry is rather limited. The u.r.v. estimates, which are based on area alone, can be refined to some degree by considering the geological characteristics of the investigated area. The geological composition of the country was quantified by point counting the geological map, using a grid network of 40.3 sq km cells. Each map unit was assigned to one of 65 standard time-petrographic units. This sampling density results in the recognition of 11 time-petrographic units (instead of 15, which are actually present).Based on linear statistical association between mineral resource diversity and geological diversity established for the states of the United States, Israel can be expected to possess 31 different commodities. Since only 19 have thus far been exploited, Israel can be expected to produce 12 additional commodities. The identity of these missing resources can be inferred by examining the inventory of commodities produced in other regions with a similar geological framework and by evaluating the potential of the 11 noneconomical mineral occurrences, which have already been discovered in the country. The geology of Israel was compared to 12 other regions; of these Egypt, Libya, Sudan, and Sinai were found to be most similar to Israel, each having 8 or 9 time-petrographic rock types in common with Israel, 7 of which are identical. Based on these comparisons and on additional information from other sources, it appears that the commodities that are more likely to be produced in the foreseeable future include manganese, feldspar, uranium (from phosphates),lignite, oil shale, and iron. The mineral industry of Israel accomplished quite significant achievements in the course of its modern history of only 35 years. These resulted from concerted national exploration and development efforts, which were supported by massive governmental capital investments. The areal value method of mineral resources appraisal is based on a cybernetic black box system model in which the degree of commitment derived from the socioeconomic infrastructure is viewed as the driving agent in converting the inherited geological characteristics of the region into economic marketable mineral commodities. The case history of Israel provides a strong substantiation for this generalized system model.     

Fractal and Multifractal Modeling of Hydrothermal Mineral Deposit Spectrum： Application to Gold Deposits in Abitibi Area, Ontario, Canada

A number of fractal/multifractal methods are introduced for quantifying the mineral de-lmsit spectrum which include a number-size, grade-tonnage model, power spectrmn model,multi-fractal model and an eigeavalue spectrmn model The first two models characterize mineral deposits spec-tra based on relationships among the measures of mineral deposits.These include the number of deposits,size of deposits,concentration and volume of mineral deposits.The last three methods that deal with the spatial-temporal spectra of mineral deposit studies are all expected to be popularized in near future.A case study of hydrothermal gold deposits from the Abitibi area,a world-class mineral district is used to demonstrate the principle as well as the applications of methods proposed in this paper,It has been shown that fractal and multifractal models are generally applicable to modeling of mineral deposits and occurrences.Clusters of mineral deposits were identified by several methods including the power spectral eral deposits in the Timmins and Kirkland Lake camps.     

Geochemistry of native gold from deposits of various types

The ICP-MS-analyzed 490 samples of lode and placer gold allowed us to detect a wide spectrum of trace elements in native gold from the most abundant gold-polysulfide-quartz, low-sulfide gold-quartz, and gold-silver deposits from various gold provinces and districts of the Russian Federation. The typical set of elements in gold of each deposit type has been determined. The distribution of REE, rare alkali and alkaline earth metals in native gold is estimated for the first time, and a geochemical index has been proposed to typify gold occurrences. Compositional differences of native gold are also caused by regional metallogenic features of gold provinces. The results obtained make it possible to determine a type of lode and placer gold occurrences at early stages of geological exploration.     

微生物地球化学探矿—蜡样芽孢杆菌法寻找金,铀矿的试验研究

壤中蜡样芽孢杆菌找矿法是微生物地球化学探矿方法之一。本文叙述了蜡样芽孢杆菌法的找矿原理、野外工作方法、室内测量技术、野外初步试验的地质效果以及测量中应注意的若干问题。在已知隐伏金矿床（点）和铀矿床（点）上测得了明显的蜡样芽孢杆菌计数异常，并在４６０铀（钼）矿床外围的铀矿化远景地段进行了试验，地质效果较为理想。     

澳大利亚北部省EL2298矿权区矿床模型及找矿前景

通过系统收集和分析有关澳大利亚北部省EL2298矿权区的地质、化探、钻探等资料,获得了该矿权区的地层、构造等成矿地质条件.以成矿地质条件的综合研究为基础,确定了矿权区的矿床模型是砂页岩型铜矿床,目的矿种是铜矿,矿质来源是古-中元古代盆地中的含铜地层,并选择了地质测量、激电中梯、激电测深、探槽和钻探等勘查工作方法手段.澳大利亚北部省EL2298矿权区成矿地质条件好,找矿信息丰富,在EL2298矿权区具有发现砂页岩型铜矿床的理论和现实的可能性.     

承德地区铜铅锌矿成矿条件及找矿标志

承德市位于华北地台北缘金银多金属成矿带东段,是河北省重要的金属矿产基地,目前探明的铜铅锌矿床达20余处,尤其近十年来,通过地质大调查项目的实施,相继发现了黑山铁矿、小寺沟含矿岩体外围的金银矿及云雾沟银多金属矿床等.文章在综合分析研究前人科研资料和找矿成果的基础上,归纳总结了铜铅锌成矿地质条件和找矿标志,认为本区成矿地质条件优越,矿化集中区有利部位物化探异常清晰,找矿标志明显,显示出铜铅锌矿产具有良好的找矿前景.     

Combining fractal analysis of mineral deposit clustering with weights of evidence to evaluate patterns of mineralization: Application to copper deposits of the Mount Isa Inlier, NW Queensland, Australia

The clustering of mineral occurrences and their spatial associations with particular geological features are critical aspects of mineral distributions for exploration and understanding ore genesis. Variations in the degree of clustering of mineral occurrences or geological features can be measured by fractal dimensions, obtained from a shifting box counting method. Spatial associations between mineral occurrences and geological features can be quantified by the weights of evidence (WofE) method using the contrast value, which increases with the strength of the spatial relationship. A new method is proposed to evaluate mineral occurrence distributions by combining the power of fractal analysis of clustering with the WofE approach. The method compares the correlation between the variation in degree of clustering of mineral occurrences and a geological feature in a study area, with the contrast value of the same feature. The possible outcomes can be simplified into four scenarios, depending on whether the correlation in variation of clustering and the contrast are high or low, respectively. Each outcome has specific exploration implications. If either a high correlation in variation of clustering or a high contrast value is obtained, the geological feature can be used for exploration targeting.The integrated fractal and WofE approach is applied to copper occurrences in the Proterozoic Mount Isa Inlier, NW Queensland, Australia, which hosts large numbers of copper deposits (1,869 occurrences), including the world class Mount Isa copper deposit. Variation in clustering of copper occurrences has a positive correlation with variation in clustering of fault bends (R = 0.823), fault intersections (R = 0.862) and mafic rocks (R = 0.885). WofE results indicate that the copper occurrences are spatially associated with fault intersections and bends and with mafic rocks. Analyses were carried out separately for the two major lithostratigraphic sequences in the Inlier, the Eastern and Western Successions. The Western Succession copper occurrences are apparently more clustered than those of the Eastern Succession, which may reflect a lower degree of exploration and/or geological factors. The association of copper occurrences with mafic rocks compared with fault bends and intersections is greater in the Eastern Succession, which may reflect genetic factors. Correlations in the variation of clustering of mineral occurrences and geological features have a linear relationship with the contrast values, and the spatial association between all geological features and copper occurrences constitute high correlation/high contrast cases. The linear relationship suggests that the geological features that control the clustering of the copper occurrences could be the same features that control their localization.     

基于地质过程的闽西南马坑式铁多金属矿定量预测

矿床是地质过程的产物之一, 深入分析控制矿床形成和保存的关键地质过程是矿产资源定量预测与评价的基础.闽西南马坑式铁多金属矿为矽卡岩型矿床, 燕山期的岩浆活动提供了热源、流体来源及部分的铁质来源; 热液沿着北东向断裂向上运移, 在岩体与石炭-二叠纪碳酸盐岩地层的接触面及石炭-二叠纪地层内部发生了热液交代作用, 形成了矽卡岩化; 铁主要来源于石炭-二叠纪碳酸盐岩建造, 后期燕山期岩浆的侵入, 使得铁进一步富集; 并在石炭-二叠纪地层中沉淀成矿.基于上述关键成矿过程, 从"源"(热源、物质来源和流体来源)、"运"(流体通道)、"盖"(圈闭)、"储"(矿质沉淀场所)和"存"(矿床的后期保存条件)等方面提取了地质证据, 利用模糊逻辑综合地质证据得到了找矿有利度图.结果显示所圈定的预测远景区与已知铁多金属矿床在空间上具有很强的相关性, 可作为进一步工作部署的依据.基于地质过程的矿产资源定量预测与评价方法, 决定矿床能否形成的关键地质过程为评价依据, 可为闽西南进一步找寻马坑式铁多金属矿提供新的找矿思路和参考依据.      

矿产勘查的双控论与合理域模型

金属成矿省等级体制成矿研究保证程度与技术－经济条件研究保证程度双控制的和对其保证程度相对优选的合理区域,是深化认识矿产勘查－开发客观规律和合理进行评价的新发展,也是把以往仅按在一定地质构造背景基础上,研究不同类型矿床特征及其勘查类型的传统方法。变革为按“景、场、相、床”4个等级体制成矿序次及其随成矿史演化进程的耦合程度,以及有机地结合经济－技术条件进行勘查评价的新方法。重点阐述了等级体制成矿概念的形成、意义和研究内容,提出了地质、技术经济和合理投资的矿产勘查评价三原则,建立了以保证等级体制成矿研究程度和技术－经济条件研究程度双因素控制,以及研究程度相对合理优选区域的矿产勘查模型。     

云南巍山—永平矿集区流体地质填图的理论与实践

流体地质填图是一种全新的地质调查及找矿方法。本次研究选择云南巍山－永平矿集区进行流体地质填图试验，研究了矿集区的控矿地质要素、各种主要的矿床（点）特征、成矿流体子系统及流域、流体的盐度与均一温度、流体的气液相成分、微量元素含量、稳定同位素特征及成矿流体的浓集中心。得到的流体地质图基本反映了本区成矿流体的性质与状态，反映了两个成矿流体子系统的基本特征，圈字了2个成矿流体子系统的流域范围及7个成矿流体浓集中心。这些浓集中心与已知矿化点分布、化探异常及有利的地质条件基本吻合，成为该区进一步找矿预测的重要依据之一。本项目的实践表明，流体地质填图不失为一种有效的找矿手段。     

蒙古矿产勘查与开发现状评述

蒙古位于俄罗斯与中国之间,各类矿产资源十分丰富,是落实"两个市场、两种资源"构思的理想地域。随着蒙古南部地区欧玉陶勒盖巨型铜—金矿床和白山特大型铜—锌矿床的发现,该国矿产资源的成矿理论研究和找矿勘查工作备受国际矿业界关注,并且取得了令人瞩目的进展。笔者等对蒙古矿产资源分布特征和新修改矿业法要点进行了总结;对重要矿山开发现状和矿业未来发展趋势进行了讨论,以便提升我国与蒙古接壤地区成矿理论研究水平,有力推动矿产资源潜力评价工作进行,进而为实施我国矿业企业"走出去"全球矿产资源战略提供科学依据。     

Mineral resource appraisal and mineral deposits computer files in the Geological Survey of Canada

The Geological Survey of Canada (G.S.C.) has been involved in national appraisal of resources of certain commodities for nearly two decades beginning with a national study of iron deposits in 1955. In 1972, the first national appraisal to rapidly estimate total resources of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Fe, Mo, and U in Canada was carried out largely by economic geologists. This exercise produced, among other things, a better definition of G.S. C. needs for building computer files in support of mineral deposits studies and mineral resource appraisal. Objectives of this paper are threefold: (1) to outline general methodology for the kind of mineral resource appraisal carried out by the G.S.C. in 1972; (2) to identify types of information required in that appraisal; and (3) to indicate types of information on mineral deposits for which it seems advantageous for the G.S.C. to construct computer files, and how these files relate to mineral resource appraisal. Methodology is fairly straightforward for appraisal of reserves (known, measured resources), but is much more problematic for appraisal of undiscovered resources. For the latter, G.S.C. economic geologists make use of two basic concepts: the deposit model, which is a generalized deposit type, distinguished by its geological attributes and host rock environment, and containing characteristic amounts of specified commodities; and the metallogenic region, which is a geographic area of more or less homogeneous geology deemed favorable for the presence of a particular deposit model. Background information required for appraisal of undiscovered resources includes the following: (a) data on distribution and geology of Canadian deposits and occurrences; (6) data on geology of important, foreign deposits; (c) knowledge of Canadian geology, commensurate with metallogenic requirements; (d) knowledge of current theories of ore-forming processes; and (e) appreciation of the amount, location, and effectiveness of past exploration in Canada. At present, only identity, location, and certain simple geological features of Canadian deposits are considered practical for a general computer file of mineral deposits. The fundamental activity of the G.S.C. in the sphere of mineral deposits is a number of broad studies on the geology of certain commodities in Canada carried out by economic geologists. Appraisal of mineral resources is based directly on the results of those studies, and is done by the same economic geologists. Construction of G.S.C. computer files is in response to needs defined by economic geologists, mainly in the context of their broad studies.This paper was presented at the International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) Project 98 entitled Standards for Computer Applications in Resource Studies held at Loen, Norway, September 27–October 1, 1976.     

河南桐柏老湾金矿综合找矿标志及找矿模型

老湾金矿带是桐柏-大别山（北坡）金银成矿带的重要组成部分，老湾金矿床是该成矿带的主要矿床之一，同时也是我国重要的变质碎屑岩型大型金矿之一。在分析研究老湾金矿地质、地球物理、地球化学特征的基础上，建立综合找矿标志信息及找矿模型，以模型指导找矿和找矿靶区的定位分析，以期为该类型矿床的预测评价起到借鉴作用。     

Guidelines for international data collection and resource assessments and analyses

The ever-increasing world interdependency required to provide the basic energy and mineral commodities needed by society, has created a need to assess, on a common basis, the location, number, and quality of deposits of natural resources. In order to evaluate and compare the resource potential of any area, two major factors must be considered: (1) the type of commodity being evaluated and (2) the specific parameter (reserves or resources) which is being defined. Each commodity or parameter being studied requires a separate methodology for analysis and different basic data. Porphyry copper deposits must be treated differently from stratabound copper deposits or massive sulfide deposits of copper. Similarly, oil and gas deposits associated with stratigraphic traps must be treated differently from those associated with salt domes. Resource assessments attempt to estimate the aggregate resource potential of an area whereas resource analyses attempt to define the specific characteristics of the individual occurrences which comprise the aggregate resource potential. Assessment programs may range from a national inventory of known deposits and occurrences to detailed studies which require an extensive integration of geological, geochemical, and geophysical data. Examples of national inventories are the small mine inventory of Bolivia and presently operating resource programs in Turkey and Argentina. Detailed programs of assessment include the AMRAP (Alaska Mineral Resource Appraisal Program) program and studies in the Coeur d'Alene district and Ely, Nevada. Worldwide resource analysis is a rapidly expanding field of endeavor necessitated by the need to more clearly define the characteristics of known deposits and to provide quantitative estimates of hypothetical and speculative resources. Studies presently underway deal with the development of search and occurrence models, field size distributions of energy resources, tonnage and grade relationships of mineral deposits, the zone of influence of exploratory drill holes, and models of the exploration process.This paper was presented at the International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP) Project 98 entitled Standards for Computer Applications in Resource Studies held at Loen, Norway, September 27–October 1, 1976.     

矿产预测中成矿信息的提取和强化

成矿信息的提取是矿产预测的重要手段,其方法的有效性直接影响到预测成果的可靠性。在成矿规律研究的基础上,有意识地干预模型的构成,突出与成矿有关的信息;抑制某些成矿意义不明显和属干扰的信息,有目的地使模型向反映成矿信息的方向逼近,提高模型与矿床实际赋存地质环境的吻合程度,均是成矿信息提取和强化的内涵。本文从研究实践中总结了先验约束模型和非先验约束模型的强化方法,在新疆阿勒泰地区的地质－找矿工作中已取得