Cursory seismic drift assessment for buildings in moderate seismicity regions

This paper outlines a methodology to assess the seismic drift of reinforced concrete buildings with limited structural and geotechnical information. Based on the latest and the most advanced research on predicting potential near-field and far field earthquakes affecting Hong Kong, the engineering response spectra for both rock and soil sites are derived. A new step-by-step procedure for displacement-based seismic hazard assessment of building structures is proposed to determine the maximum inter-storey drift demand for reinforced concrete buildings. The primary information required for this assessment is only the depth of the soft soil above bedrock and the height of the building. This procedure is further extended to assess the maximum chord rotation angle demand for the coupling beam of coupled shear wall or frame wall structures, which may be very critical when subjected to earthquake forces. An example is provided to illustrate calibration of the assessment procedure by using actual engineering structural models.     

Probabilistic seismic assessment of multistory precast concrete frames exposed to corrosion

Seismic design of concrete structures is currently based on time-invariant capacity design criteria which do not account for environmental hazards. The significant progressive decay of strength and ductility of concrete structures exposed to damage, in particular due to reinforcing steel corrosion, shows that this approach should be revised to consider the deterioration over time of the seismic performance. This is important also for precast systems, for which most of structural members are often directly exposed to the atmosphere and environmental aggressiveness. This paper presents a probabilistic approach for the lifetime assessment of seismic performance of concrete structures considering the interaction of seismic and environmental hazards. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is shown by its application to multistory precast buildings exposed to corrosion. The results show that structures designed for the same seismic action could have different lifetime seismic performance depending on the environmental exposure. These results emphasize the importance of a life-cycle approach to both seismic assessment of existing buildings and seismic design of new structures, and indicate that capacity design criteria need to be properly revised to consider the severity of the environmental exposure.     

Seismic loss estimation of non‐ductile reinforced concrete buildings

Non‐ductile reinforced concrete buildings represent a prevalent construction type found in many parts of the world. Due to the seismic vulnerability of such buildings, in areas of high seismic activity non‐ductile reinforced concrete buildings pose a significant threat to the safety of the occupants and damage to such structures can result in large financial losses. This paper introduces advanced analytical models that can be used to simulate the nonlinear dynamic response of these structural systems, including collapse. The state‐of‐the‐art loss simulation procedure developed for new buildings is extended to estimate the expected losses of existing non‐ductile concrete buildings considering their vulnerability to collapse. Three criteria for collapse, namely first component failure, side‐sway collapse, and gravity‐load collapse, are considered in determining the probability of collapse and the assessment of financial losses. A detailed example is presented using a seven‐story non‐ductile reinforced concrete frame building located in the Los Angeles, California. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Global damage indexes for the seismic performance assessement of RC structures

When performing the seismic risk assessment of new or existing buildings, the definition of compact indexes able to measure the damaging and safety level of structures is essential, also in view of the economic considerations on buildings rehabilitation. This paper proposes two series of indexes, named, respectively, Global Damage Indexes (GDIs), which are representative of the overall structure performance, and Section Damage Indexes (SDIs), which assess the conditions of reinforced concrete (RC) beam‐column sections. Such indexes are evaluated by means of an efficient numerical model able to perform nonlinear analyses of the RC frame, based on the continuum damage mechanics theory and fiber approach. An improvement of a two‐parameter damage model for concrete, developed by some of the authors, which guarantees a better correlation between the Local Damage Indexes (LDIs) and the material's mechanical characteristics, is also presented. For the reinforcement, a specific LDI, named ‘steel damage index’, which takes into account the plastic strain development and the bar buckling effect, is proposed. The numerical model has been employed to simulate several experimental tests, in order to verify the accuracy of the proposed approach in predicting the RC member's behavior. Nonlinear static and dynamic analyses of two RC frames are carried out. The robustness of the method, as well as the effectiveness of the GDIs in assessing the structural conditions, are demonstrated here. Finally, comparisons between the evolution of GDIs and the achievement of the performance levels as proposed in FEMA 356 are reported. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A rapid seismic safety assessment method for mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings

The majority of existing buildings are not safe against earthquakes in most of the developing countries. Existing building stocks should be assessed with a seismic safety assessment method before a devastating earthquake. Cheaper and quicker rapid seismic safety assessment methods can be used instead of code-based assessment methods to determine the seismic performance of existing buildings. In this study, an approach was introduced to determine the seismic performance of existing mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings with fewer parameters and process steps than code-based detailed assessment procedures. Calibration and regulation of the introduced method were conducted on the 39 collapsed buildings’ projects in 1999 Kocaeli, Turkey, earthquake. Finally, 55 existing buildings located in Eskisehir, Turkey, assessed with this calibrated method and the results were compared with the results of a code-based detailed assessment method; the results showed a very good agreement of about 83%. This study shows that the proposed method can be applied for the determination of the seismic performance of existing mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings quickly and without compromising reliability.     

Modelling exterior unreinforced beam‐column joints in seismic analysis of non‐ductile RC frames

The seismic response of non‐ductile reinforced concrete (RC) buildings can be affected by the behaviour of beam‐column joints involved in the failure mechanism, especially in typical existing buildings. Conventional modelling approaches consider only beam and column flexibility, although joints can provide a significant contribution also to the overall frame deformability. In this study, the attention is focused on exterior joints without transverse reinforcement, and a possible approach to their modelling in nonlinear seismic analysis of RC frames is proposed. First, experimental tests performed by the authors are briefly presented, and their results are discussed. Second, these tests, together with other tests with similar features from literature, are employed to calibrate the joint panel deformability contribution in order to reproduce numerically the experimental joint shear stress–strain behaviour under cyclic loading. After a validation phase of this proposal, a numerical investigation of the influence of joints on the seismic behaviour of a case study RC frame – designed for gravity loads only – is performed. The preliminary failure mode classification of the joints within the analysed frame is carried out. Structural models that (i) explicitly include nonlinear behaviour of beam‐column joints exhibiting shear or anchorage failure or (ii) model joints as elements with infinite strength and stiffness are built and their seismic performance are assessed and compared. A probabilistic assessment based on nonlinear dynamic simulations is performed by means of a scaling approach to evaluate the seismic response at different damage states accounting for uncertainties in ground‐motion records. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seismic vulnerability of reinforced concrete buildings with discontinuity in columns

Irregular reinforced concrete (RC) buildings constitute a significant portion of the existing housing stock. A common type of irregularity is in the form of discontinuity in the vertical framing elements, which can exacerbate their seismic vulnerability. The design guidelines available in seismic design codes essentially cater to only regular buildings, and the safety of such buildings, even when the other guidelines of the codes are followed, is doubtful. This article evaluates the vulnerability of RC frame buildings with discontinuity in columns designed for modern seismic codes, in the form of seismic collapse capacity, collapse resistance against maximum earthquake demand level, and failure mechanism. The adequacy and limitations of the provisions of the seismic design codes are evaluated for such buildings. Analysis results show that the sequential analysis of buildings considering the construction staged effects, considerably affects the design and hence the collapse failure mechanism of even low- and mid-rise buildings. The results also underline the importance of strong column–weak beam design in the seismic performance of the floating column buildings. The vertical component of ground motion is also observed to be relatively more crucial in floating column buildings.     

Modified three‐dimensional seismic assessment method for buildings based on ambient vibration tests: extrapolation to higher shaking levels and measuring the dynamic amplification portion of natural torsion

This paper presents applications of the modified 3D‐SAM approach, a three‐dimensional seismic assessment methodology for buildings directly based on in situ experimental modal tests to calculate global seismic demands and the dynamic amplification portion of natural torsion. Considering that the building modal properties change from weak to strong motion levels, appropriate modification factors are proposed to extend the application of the method to stronger earthquakes. The proposed approach is consistent with the performance‐based seismic assessment approach, which entails the prediction of seismic displacements and drift ratios that are related to the damage condition and therefore the functionality of the building. The modified 3D‐SAM is especially practical for structures that are expected to experience slight to moderate damage levels and in particular for post‐disaster buildings that are expected to remain functional after an earthquake. In the last section of this paper, 16 low to mid‐rise irregular buildings located in Montreal, Canada, and that have been tested under ambient vibrations are analyzed with the method, and the dynamic amplification portion of natural torsion of the dataset is reported and discussed. The proposed methodology is appropriate for large‐scale assessments of existing buildings and is applicable to any seismic region of the world. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Earthquake‐induced loss assessment of steel frame buildings with special moment frames designed in highly seismic regions

This paper discusses an analytical study that quantifies the expected earthquake‐induced losses in typical office steel frame buildings designed with perimeter special moment frames in highly seismic regions. It is shown that for seismic events associated with low probabilities of occurrence, losses due to demolition and collapse may be significantly overestimated when the expected loss computations are based on analytical models that ignore the composite beam effects and the interior gravity framing system of a steel frame building. For frequently occurring seismic events building losses are dominated by non‐structural content repairs. In this case, the choice of the analytical model representation of the steel frame building becomes less important. Losses due to demolition and collapse in steel frame buildings with special moment frames designed with strong‐column/weak‐beam ratio larger than 2.0 are reduced by a factor of two compared with those in the same frames designed with a strong‐column/weak‐beam ratio larger than 1.0 as recommended in ANSI/AISC‐341‐10. The expected annual losses (EALs) of steel frame buildings with SMFs vary from 0.38% to 0.74% over the building life expectancy. The EALs are dominated by repairs of acceleration‐sensitive non‐structural content followed by repairs of drift‐sensitive non‐structural components. It is found that the effect of strong‐column/weak‐beam ratio on EALs is negligible. This is not the case when the present value of life‐cycle costs is selected as a loss‐metric. It is advisable to employ a combination of loss‐metrics to assess the earthquake‐induced losses in steel frame buildings with special moment frames depending on the seismic performance level of interest. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of seismic vulnerability of a complex RC existing building by linear and nonlinear modeling approaches

Recent earthquakes, that stroked Italian regions in past decades (Umbria— Marche 1997; Molise 2002; L’Aquila 2009), pointed out the high vulnerability of reinforced concrete existing buildings causing severe damages in the structures and consequently life losses. This is mainly due to the fact that such structures were often built without reference to seismic actions or on the basis of old standard provisions. Nowadays in Italy, Public Authorities are requested to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of their building stock assessing the actual capacity of such structures, as a consequence of new hazard levels and seismic microzonation introduced by new standards. According to Eurocode 8 or Italian standard NTC 2008, the seismic analysis of existing reinforced concrete buildings can be performed by one of the established procedure (i.e. Linear Static Analysis LSA, Linear Dynamic Analysis LDA, Nonlinear Static Analysis NSA, Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis NDA), depending on the achieved knowledge level about the structural system and materials. In order to compare efficiency and differences of previously described approaches, a deep investigation was executed on a reinforced concrete existing building whose dynamic behaviour was evaluated by an experimental dynamic analysis. In such a way, updated models were obtained and adopted for seismic analysis performed by using linear and nonlinear approaches, taking into account the stiffness and strength contribution of masonry infill walls. It was so possible to get useful indications on the reliability and discrepancies of different modelling approaches as well as on the influence of masonry infills on the seismic response of existing r.c. buildings.     

Advanced frame element for seismic analysis of masonry structures: model formulation and validation

This paper presents a masonry panel model for the nonlinear static and dynamic analysis of masonry buildings suitable for the seismic assessment of new and existing structures. The model is based on an equivalent frame idealization of the structure and stems from previous research on force‐based frame elements. The element formulation considers axial, bending, and shear deformations within the framework of the Timoshenko beam theory. A phenomenological cyclic section law that accounts for the shear panel response is coupled, through equilibrium between shear and bending forces along the element, with a fiber‐section model that accounts for the axial and bending responses. The proposed panel model traces with a low computational burden and numerical stability the main aspects of the structural behavior of masonry panels and is suitable for analyses of multi‐floor buildings with a relatively regular distribution of openings and with walls and floors organized to grant a box‐like behavior under seismic loads. The model capabilities are validated though analyses of simple unreinforced masonry panels and comparisons with published experimental results. The model accuracy is strongly dependent on the fiber and shear constitutive laws used. However, the formulation is general, and laws different from those employed in this study are easily introduced without affecting the model formulation. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Response reduction factor of irregular RC buildings in Kathmandu valley

Most current seismic design includes the nonlinear response of a structure through a response reduction factor(R). This allows the designer to use a linear elastic force-based approach while accounting for nonlinear behavior and deformation limits. In fact, the response reduction factor is used in modern seismic codes to scale down the elastic response of a structure. This study focuses on estimating the actual ‘R' value for engineered design/construction of reinforced concrete(RC) buildings in Kathmandu valley. The ductility and overstrength of representative RC buildings in Kathmandu are investigated. Nonlinear pushover analysis was performed on structural models in order to evaluate the seismic performance of buildings. Twelve representative engineered irregular buildings with a variety of characteristics located in the Kathmandu valley were selected and studied. Furthermore, the effects of overstrength on the ductility factor, beam column capacity ratio on the building ductility, and load path on the response reduction factor, are examined. Finally, the results are further analyzed and compared with different structural parameters of the buildings.     

Development of damage probability matrices based on Greek earthquake damage data

A comprehensive study is presented for empirical seismic vulnerability assessment of typical structural types, representative of the building stock of Southern Europe, based on a large set of damage statistics. The observational database was obtained from post-earthquake surveys carried out in the area struck by the September 7, 1999 Athens earthquake. After analysis of the collected observational data, a unified damage database has been created which comprises 180,945 damaged buildings from/after the near-field area of the earthquake. The damaged buildings are classified in specific structural types, according to the materials, seismic codes and construction techniques in Southern Europe. The seismic demand is described in terms of both the regional macroseismic intensity and the ratio αg/ao, where αg is the maximum peak ground acceleration (PGA) of the earthquake event and ao is the unique value PGA that characterizes each municipality shown on the Greek hazard map. The relative and cumulative frequencies of the different damage states for each structural type and each intensity level are computed in terms of damage ratio. Damage probability matrices (DPMs) and vulnerability curves are obtained for specific structural types. A comparison analysis is fulfilled between the produced and the existing vulnerability models.     

A macro‐model with nonlinear springs for seismic analysis of URM buildings

Seismic assessment of existing unreinforced masonry buildings represents a current challenge in structural engineering. Many historical masonry buildings in earthquake regions were not designed to withstand seismic loading; thus, these structures often do not meet the basic safety requirements recommended by current seismic codes and need to be strengthened considering the results from realistic structural analysis. This paper presents an efficient modelling strategy for representing the nonlinear response of unreinforced masonry components under in‐plane cyclic loading, which can be used for practical and accurate seismic assessment of masonry buildings. According to the proposed strategy, generic masonry perforated walls are modelled using an equivalent frame approach, where each masonry component is described utilising multi‐spring nonlinear elements connected by rigid links. When modelling piers and spandrels, nonlinear springs are placed at the two ends of the masonry element for describing the flexural behaviour and in the middle for representing the response in shear. Specific hysteretic rules allowing for degradation of stiffness and strength are then used for modelling the member response under cyclic loading. The accuracy and the significant potential of the proposed modelling approach are shown in several numerical examples, including comparisons against experimental results and the nonlinear dynamic analysis of a building structure. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relaxation method for pounding action between adjacent buildings at expansion joint

Earthquake‐induced structural pounding frequently causes serious damage to buildings, particularly at the expansion joint (hereafter, EXPJ) between adjacent buildings. Because the EXPJ width in existing reinforced concrete buildings is usually very small, typically about 5 cm for school buildings in Japan, collision avoidance cannot be achieved by seismic retrofitting. This paper presents an experimental investigation into an effective method for reducing severe structural damage due to pounding at the EXPJ between narrowly separated buildings. The method involves inserting a shock‐absorbing material such as rubber into the EXPJ gap. The efficiency of the proposed method is evaluated by laboratory shaking tests using two model buildings. Furthermore, a lumped mass model is used to carry out a collision analysis in order to numerically investigate the influence of such a shock‐absorbing material. Both the numerical and experimental results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The validity of the proposed method is also demonstrated by numerical simulation of adjacent 10‐story steel buildings with an EXPJ width of 5 cm. The force, acceleration and velocity produced by earthquake‐induced structural pounding are found to be remarkably mitigated by inserting a soft shock‐absorbing material into the EXPJ gap. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Full-scale hybrid test for realistic verification of a seismic upgrading technique of RC frames by BRBs

Scientific research proposing any type of device/technique for seismic protection of buildings is generally based on numerical models that adopt simplifications to make possible extensive analyses. This means that important details of the inelastic response could be neglected. Following this consideration, regardless of the device/technique invented, before it could be put into practice, an experimental verification of the actual structural performance should be conducted by full-scale tests at building level. This issue is investigated in the paper considering seismic retrofit of reinforced concrete (RC) framed structures by buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) as technique to be validated, while hybrid test is selected as tool for experimental validation at building level. The analysed seismic upgrading technique consists in the insertion of BRBs into the RC frame. The upgrading intervention is designed by a method developed in previous studies. This technique responds to an important need of the society. Indeed, existing RC frames showed high vulnerability in occurrence of past earthquakes when they were not originally conceived to sustain horizontal forces. The hybrid test is selected among the available experimental techniques because it allows the experimentation on full-scale specimens with reasonable cost. In this study, a substructure hybrid test was conducted and the results are here presented to (a) evaluate the effectiveness of the design method of BRBs for seismic upgrading, (b) investigate the integration of BRBs in existing RC frame, and (c) show the potentiality of the substructure hybrid test for the experimental verification of innovative techniques for seismic protection of buildings.     

基于滞回曲线以及结构动力方程的混凝土结构抗震稳定性分析

为准确全面地量化分析研究土木工程建筑中混凝土结构抗震稳定性,提出基于滞回曲线以及结构动力方程的混凝土结构抗震稳定性分析方法。首先采用滞回曲线描述混凝土结构在地震作用下的损伤情况,对滞回曲线模型拐点进行有效操作,确保动力方程对混凝土结构抗震稳定性进行有效分析。其次采用基于混凝土结构动力方程的抗震稳定性分析方法,对地震地面运动模型以及结构分析模型来分析混凝土结构的随机地震反应情况,得到混凝土结构随机反应的汇总量,在此基础上通过双参数的结构破坏模型,基于结构稳定性原理,获取运算混凝土结构抗震稳定性的概率表达式,再基于该表达式分析混凝土结构的抗震稳定性情况。实验结果说明,所提方法能够对土木工程建筑中不同类型混凝土构件抗震稳定性进行有效分析,分析结果准确且全面。     

无人机摄影技术在精河地震房屋震害定量评估中的应用

利用2017年8月9日精河6.6级地震后获取的高分辨率无人机影像，对叶里斯南也肯村153栋房屋进行结构分类和震害解译，获取研究区内土木结构、砖木结构、砖混结构、框架结构4种类型房屋数量及震害特征，并依据解译结果计算每种结构房屋平均震害指数。由于研究区内砖木结构、砖混结构、框架结构房屋数量偏少，房屋内部的震害难以用无人机影像识别，这3类房屋的震害解译结果与现场调查结果相比差别较大，而土木结构房屋平均震害指数及所对应的地震烈度结果与现场调查结果基本一致，表明无人机影像可为房屋震害定量评估提供重要参考。     

Seismic damage evaluation in urban areas using the capacity spectrum method: Application to Barcelona

Conceptual aspects related to seismic vulnerability, damage and risk evaluation are discussed first, together with a short review of the most widely used possibilities for seismic evaluation of structures. The capacity spectrum method and the way of obtaining seismic damage scenarios for urban areas starting from capacity and fragility curves are then discussed. The determination of capacity curves for buildings using non-linear structural analysis tools is then explained, together with a simplified expeditious procedure allowing the development of fragility curves. The seismic risk of the buildings of Barcelona, Spain, is analyzed in the paper, based on the application of the capacity spectrum method. The seismic hazard in the area of the city is described by means of the reduced 5% damped elastic response spectrum. The information on the buildings was obtained by collecting, arranging, improving and completing a broad database of the dwellings and current buildings. The buildings existing in Barcelona are mainly of two types: unreinforced masonry structures and reinforced concrete buildings with waffled-slab floors. The ArcView software was used to create a GIS tool for managing the collected information in order to develop seismic risk scenarios. This study shows that the vulnerability of the buildings is significant in Barcelona and, therefore, in spite of the low-to-moderate seismic hazard in the region, the expected seismic risk is considerable.     

In situ experiments and seismic analysis of existing buildings. Part I: experimental investigations

Recent results of in situ measurements and their interest for a seismic assessment of existing buildings are presented and analysed. The present paper (Part I) is devoted to the experimental programme. The response to ambient vibrations, harmonic excitation and shock loading is recorded on intact buildings but also after their structure or their vicinity was modified. These tests aim to identify the dynamic behaviour of ordinary intact buildings built in a conventional practise. Moreover, taking advantage of their demolition, it was possible (through these tests) to determine the actual influence of the light work elements, full precast facade panels, bearing masonry walls, and the presence of neighbouring joined buildings. These experiments realized on real buildings show that information gathered from ambient measurements provide reliable and efficient data of real interest for a clear understanding of the actual building behaviour. The advantage of integrating these data in the vulnerability assessment is presented and discussed in the next paper (Part II). Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.