Big returns on small samples: Lessons learned from the analysis of small lunar samples and implications for the future scientific exploration of the Moon

Samples returned from the surface of planetary bodies are both complementary to orbital and in situ observations and provide a unique perspective for understanding the nature and evolution of that body. This unique perspective is based on the scale the sample is viewed (mm-Å), the ability to manipulate the sample, the capability to analyze the sample at high precision and accuracy, and the ability to significantly modify experiments as logic and technology dictates over an extended period of time (decades). Unlike the Apollo missions, robotic sample return missions in the next decade will result in the return of relatively small sample mass. Such robotically returned samples are scientifically more valuable if they can be placed within a planetary context through orbital observations and if information concerning planetary-scale processes and conditions can be extracted from them. Conversely, samples give remotely sensed data ground truth. That is, they act as a “calibration standard” for these data allowing a much enhanced global view to be constructed.The Moon is an example that illustrates how information can be extracted from small samples and then extended to planetary and solar system scales. Three examples from the Moon illustrate this point. First, multi-analytical and experimental studies of minute (10-500 μm) glass beads representing near-primary magmas provide constraints on the composition and condition of the lunar mantle, the style of early planetary differentiation, the history and character of early mantle dynamics and melting, and the isolation of the lunar mantle from late-stages of lunar accretion. Second, trace element analysis of individual mineral grains via ion microprobe and isotopic analysis of small rock fragments representing some of the oldest and youngest periods of lunar magmatism illustrate their usefulness for both fingerprinting distinct episodes of lunar magmatism and reconstructing the evolution of lunar magmatism. Third, mechanisms for primitive planetary mantles degassing and volatile transport on airless bodies can be understood by the analysis of volatile coatings on glass and mineral fragments in the lunar regolith.As many of our insights about the Moon are based on samples that primarily were collected within a limited lunar terrain, our understanding of the Moon is somewhat biased. Future scientifically strategic sampling targets are young mare basalts (Roris basalt in Oceanus Procellarum), far-side mare basalts (Mare Moscoviense), large pyroclastic deposits and potential mantle xenoliths (Aristarchus plateau, Rima Bode) major unsampled crustal lithologies outside the Procellarum KREEP terrane (central peak in Tsiolkovsky crater, South-pole Aitken basin), basin and crater melt sheets (South-pole Aitken basin, Giordano Bruno) and H deposits in permanently shaded areas (South-pole Aitken basin). Sampling these locations would further our understanding of processes at work during the early evolution of the terrestrial planets, provide a comprehensive history of endogenous (e.g., primary volcanic degassing) and exogenous (e.g., solar wind, galactic cosmic rays, volatiles from comets) volatile reservoirs and volatile transport and would provide unique historical information about events and processes that affected the entire inner solar system, a record obscured on the Earth and Mars.     

Frozen mounds in Gorny Altai: geophysical and geochemical studies

The importance of pre-excavation permafrost detection within ancient burial mounds in the Altai by geophysical methods is hard to overestimate. There was no way of detecting small quantities of frozen ground or ice under stone mounds, and this is a topical issue in Russian archeology. Frozen mounds, which retain organic matter owing to natural processes, are an exceptional source of information about historical and cultural processes in the Early Iron Age. Pre-excavation geophysical prospecting is especially important in the context of global warming, which might destroy a whole layer of cultural and historical information.The integrated geophysical studies conducted in recent years focused on a group of archeological sites of the Pazyryk culture whose burial constructions are very likely to contain frozen artifacts. As a rule, such burial mounds are located at a considerable altitude and contain permafrost, which creates unique conditions for the preservation of artifacts. Such localities include the Ukok high plateau (southern Altai) and the northwestern part of Mongolian Altay. Systematic field studies were conducted on the Ukok Plateau in 2003 and 2007 and in the adjacent territory of Mongolian Altay in 2005 and 2006. The following geophysical methods were used: vertical electrical sounding (VES), electrical tomography (ET), shallow frequency scanning, georadiolocation, magnetic susceptibility measurements, gamma-ray spectrometry, and chromatography. The field works were planned with a heavy reliance on the 3D mathematical simulation of electric and EM fields, which is meant for a realistic estimate of the possibilities of geoelectrics and the best ways of its application to burial-mound studies and data interpretation.The excavations conducted in 2006 in northwestern Mongolia within the Altai Mts. confirmed the geophysical prediction of permafrost at all the sites identified by the geophysical studies in 2005. In one of the mounds, they yielded a unique intact tomb of a Scythian warrior.     

青藏高原东缘民族区域城镇可持续发展研究

青藏高原东缘区域,由于独特的地理环境和多元民族、经济结构的制约,民族宗教文化、民族贸易的超常亲合及资源开发、人居环境的改善是城镇发展的主要动力.低水平、小规模、职能分工不明确、空间分布差异大是城镇发展的主要特征.严酷封闭的地理环境、落后的社会经济发展状态和脆弱的生态环境是主要的障碍因素.因此选择"小规模、多中心、多层次、适当集中"的区域城镇化模式,强化城镇及区域特色产业,优化生态环境,营造城镇与区域协调发展的外部环境,培育中心城镇是城镇可持续发展的关键.     

Scale Matching with Factorial Kriging for Improved Porosity Estimation from Seismic Data

When seismic data and porosity well logs contain information at different spatial scales, it is important to do a scale-matching of the datasets. Combining different data types with scale mismatch can lead to suboptimal results. A good correlation between seismic velocity and rock properties provides a basis for integrating seismic data in the estimation of petrophysical properties. Three-dimensional seismic data provides an unique exhaustive coverage of the interwell reservoir region not available from well data. However, because of the limitations of measurement frequency bandwidth and view angles, the seismic image can not capture the true seismic velocity at all spatial scales present in the earth. The small-scale spatial structure of heterogeneities may be absent in the measured seismic data. In order to take best advantage of the seismic data, factorial kriging is applied to separate the small and large-scale structures of both porosity and seismic data. Then the spatial structures in seismic data which are poorly correlated with porosity are filtered out prior to integrating seismic data into porosity estimation.     

甘肃大水式金矿床地质特征及与周边金矿对比浅析

大水式金矿床是近年来发现的一个新类型金矿,其矿化特征独特、埋藏浅、品位高、化学成分简单、易采选、具有很高的经济价值。本文通过对该矿床的地质特征、成因等和周边的金矿床进行了对比分析认为,大水式金矿是构造—岩浆—热液活动体系的系列演化产物。     

A statistical assessment of the uncertainty in a 3-D geological framework model

Three-dimensional framework models are the state of the art to present geologists’ understanding of a region in a form that can be used to support planning and decision making. However, there is little information on the uncertainty of such framework models. This paper reports an experiment in which five geologists each produced a framework model of a single region in the east of England. Each modeller was provided with a unique set of borehole observations from which to make their model. Each set was made by withholding five unique validation boreholes from the set of all available boreholes. The models could then be compared with the validation observations. There was no significant between-modeller source of variation in framework model error. There was no evidence of systematic bias in the modelled depth for any unit, and a statistically significant but small tendency for the mean error to increase with depth below the surface. The confidence interval for the predicted height of a surface at a point ranged from ±5.6 m to ±6.4 m. There was some evidence that the variance of the model error increased with depth, but no evidence that it differed between modellers or varied with the number of close-neighbouring boreholes or distance to the outcrop. These results are specific to the area that has been modelled, with relatively simple geology, and reflect the relatively dense set of boreholes available for modelling. The method should be applied under a range of conditions to derive more general conclusions.     

普查小型矿床时的研究程度问题初议

小型矿床开发利用在我国矿业中占有十分重要的地位。但小型矿床一般只经过普查工作，研究程度低。如何利用普查资料进行小型矿山建设，又不致造成大的失误？这是一个十分现实的问题，本文对其进行了初步探讨。     

Tourism research in the United States: a geographic perspective

The nature of tourism geography research in the United States is characterized by seven factors. First, research is not concentrated on a few topics of interest but rather is very diverse. Second, there is no research paradigm to influence the direction of investigations. Third, examination of tourism tends to stress the unique case rather than the general situation. Fourth, studies that replicate and/or verify original findings are not common. Fifth, the complexity of the tourism experience and the lack of data bases partially explain ideographic tendencies. Sixth, efforts to produce an understanding of the spatial aspects of tourism are primarily conducted by individuals and small groups. Seventh, emphasis is placed on domestic rather than international tourism. In conclusion, four future trends are noted. One, research that has been expanding rapidly will continue to increase but at a slower rate. Two, improved technology and methods of collecting information will make available large data sets for the assessment of tourism trends at international, national, regional, and state levels. Three, increased needs for useful research findings will result in more theoretical and applied investigations. Four, tourism geographers will engage in increased amounts of interdisciplinary research and begin to associate more and more with other social scientists in the examination of tourism.     

寒武系底部宽川铺生物群中的卵裂胚胎过程:来自化石薄片的证据

陕南寒武纪早期宽川铺生物群中保存的大量磷酸盐化动物胚胎化石为古生物研究开辟了一个新领域。目前已报道了囊胚期之后不同发育阶段的胚胎化石标本,并且初步建立了从光滑球形胚胎化石Olivooides到带有瘤刺的锥体化石Punctatus的发育序列,而对卵裂期的胚胎化石却鲜有报道。基于通过醋酸浸泡获得的多枚卵裂期、囊胚期及原肠胚期的三维化石标本,加上应用岩石切片技术获得的卵裂期胚胎化石的切片标本,共同见证了从单个卵细胞(Olivooides)经卵裂到囊胚、原肠胚的完整胚胎发育序列。新化石材料的发现,不仅填补了宽川铺生物群中卵裂期胚胎化石的空白,完善了从单个卵细胞(Olivooides)经卵裂到囊胚、原肠胚,再到孵化的锥形幼体(Punctatus)的完整胚胎发育序列,而且通过与贵州瓮安生物群中卵裂期细胞胚胎化石及一些现生的低等动物卵裂期胚胎的对比,对揭示Olivooides胚胎的卵裂过程和特点,探讨其亲缘关系,以及后生动物的早期演化提供了新的化石证据。     

Conceptual model for transferring information between small watersheds

Stream and watershed management and restoration can be greatly facilitated through use of physiographic landform classification to organize and communicate natural resource, hazard, and environmental information at a broad scale (1:250,000) as illustrated by the Piedmont and Coastal Plain Provinces in Maryland, or at a small scale (1:24,000) as illustrated using divisions and zones combined with a conceptual model. The conceptual model brings together geology, surficial processes, landforms and land use change information at the small watershed scale and facilitates transfer of information from one small watershed to another with similar geology and landforms. Stream flow, sediment erosion, and water quality illustrate the use of the model.     

Geochemistry of the Dissolved Load of the Changjiang Basin Rivers: Anthropogenic Impacts and Chemical Weathering, Evidences from Major Elements, Sr and B Isotopes

1 Introduction Rivers provide a unique opportunity to have average information about chemical and physical erosion, about the major geochemical fractionations created by these major geological processes but also about the impact and disturbances of human activities on the Earth Engine.     

区域性海洋环境灾害信息网络服务系统总体设计

在总结分析区域海洋预报中心业务的基础上,从数据传输流程入口,进行业务系统总体建模,建立统一的海洋预报信息网络平台,实现高度集成的区域性海洋环境灾害信息网络服务系统的总体设计思路。采用XML Web Service技术体系为核心的平台技术,实现了前台应用系统和后台业务系统的松耦合连接,解决了系统建设中由于各种现存信息系统相互独立造成的信息系统过度扩张问题,以及在新的信息系统建设中,新老系统的继承和复用问题。     

遥感及地球物理方法在尉犁地区寻找隐伏岩体中的应用

尉犁兴地地区遥感影像信息分析与野外实地调查的实践表明,地质体与遥感信息、地球物理特征之间有密切的联系。依据遥感影像色调及影纹特征圈定地层边界效果显著。运用遥感与地球物理手段相结合的技术方法,对寻找隐伏岩体有独特的优势,是隐伏地区找矿的有效手段之一。     

济宁市市级地籍管理信息系统建设与设计

地籍管理信息系统建设作为国土资源信息化建设的一部分,对于国土资源信息化建设具有重要意义。文中主要介绍了济宁市市级地籍管理系统的建设和系统设计,并着重介绍市级系统中特有的一些功能,可以实现对基础地理信息数据及地籍资料数据进行动态管理和分析,为国土资源调查评价、规划、保护和合理利用提供最新和准确的科学依据。     

济南富水孔隙黏性土地层渗透性试验研究

以济南市轨道交通R1线大杨庄站主体基坑降水工程为例,研究表明发育于济南区域孔隙黏性土地层黏性土内具有独特的空间网状孔隙、孔洞结构。通过4种渗透性试验成果对比分析,室内试验、声纳渗流试验测定的渗透系数均较小,与实际地层渗透能力相差很大;抽水试验与回灌试验测定的渗透系数相近,远远大于一般黏性土的渗透性,渗透系数随着回灌压力的增加而呈线性提高,回灌引起周边地下水位上升较小,影响范围有限,符合济南孔隙黏性土地层的富水性强和渗透性好特性,具有独特性和鲜明的区域特点。相关试验成果可以为相关区域基坑降水与回灌设计、施工和泉水环境保护提供参考。     

Test on application of distributed fiber optic sensing technique into soil slope monitoring

Brillouin optical time-domain reflectometer (BOTDR), a newly developed distributed fiber optic sensing technique, has been proved to be a very suitable and useful technique for monitoring and early warning of structural engineering by laboratory tests and practical projects due to its unique functions, such as distributing, long distance, anti-electromagnetic interference, waterproof, etc. However, its application to geotechnical engineering, especially soil-slope engineering, has been less carried out due to the complexity of the characteristics of geotechnical materials in the field. In this paper, BOTDR technique is applied to monitor the deformation of a laboratory soil-slope model in small scale in order to test the feasibility and early-warning characteristics of this technique with monitoring the deformation of soil slope. Different types of optical fibers are planted directly in the soil-slope model or bonded to geotextiles and geogrids that are planted in the fillings of the test model. Strain measurements of the model slope under various loads are obtained by BOTDR. By data processing and analysis, the abnormal strains can be obtained distributively, and the position of the abnormal strains can be located as well. The results show much valuable information for applications of BOTDR technique into soil-slope engineering. The test proves that the BOTDR technique can be used to ensure the stability of artificial soil slope and is useful for monitoring and early warning of the artificial soil-slope engineering.     

玉林市岩溶塌陷地理信息系统

GIS技术的发展为地质灾害的资料管理、危险性评价及对策研究等提供了有力的支持工具。玉林市岩溶塌陷地理信息系统是以GIS软件—MapInfo为平台，针对岩溶塌陷的特点，用VB语言进行二次开发的集数据管理、分析统计、输出为一体的综合系统。系统中录入了建国以来，玉林市发生的71次岩溶塌陷灾害事件，共414个塌陷坑的详细资料，及30多个与岩溶塌陷有关的其它专题信息。分别归类为岩溶塌陷信息、市政信息、勘探信息、水文气象信息、玉(林)柴(油厂)塌陷子系统等。此外，系统提供了信息查询、制作专题图、统计分析等功能，方便、快捷地为地质灾害管理、城市规划、勘察设计等部门提供服务。     

隐伏脉状金矿体的激发极化异常特征

讨论了小型脉状金矿的地质及激发极化异常特征,通过已知脉状金矿体的实例,说明寻找隐伏金矿时,要注意研究低缓的,幅度较小但稳定连续的异常,这些激发极化异常有可能是小型脉状金矿体的反映。由于成矿条件的限制,在金属硫化物含量不同的情况下,矿体可以表现为低阻高极化体,也可能表现为高阻高极化体。电阻率法受地形影响大,不易分辨小型脉状体的异常,可以作为评价和解释的参考信息,而激发极化法受地形影响小,是寻找含硫化物的小型脉状金矿体的有效方法。     

Exploration and decision-making in geotechnical engineering – a case study

ABSTRACT

The paper presents methodologies for exploration planning under uncertain conditions based on virtual exploration and Bayesian updating. The process starts with site characterization using existing information to produce geologic profiles. Initial distributions of cost and time are obtained with a Bayesian network model that optimizes the construction strategy for particular geologic conditions. This is followed by the unique step to determine with a “virtual exploration” if additional exploration (e.g. borings) is warranted, and if so, where it should be best done. All this is then applied to the planned Abu Dhabi subway tunnels providing the transportation planners with necessary information for planning and design.     

鄂东南中酸性小岩体含矿性评价的模糊聚类法

鄂东南地区斑岩型矿床是与中酸性浅成小侵入体有关。本文应用模糊数学的原理和方法,对小岩体以地球化学参数所反映的信息,采用F—FFS聚类法,建立模糊聚类识别模型,从而使小岩体含矿性得到评判,快速选择靶区。这对矿产勘查工作,无疑是具有实际意义的。