Iron-manganese formations in the Baikal region

This work is a review of the modern concepts of the accumulation of Fe and Mn in the Baikal bottom sediments and the regularities of formation of iron-manganese (including phosphate-bearing) nodules in the lake. Special attention is given to the probable participation of hydrothermal water in this process and the genesis of ancient nodules deeply buried in the Baikal sediments. The possible relationship between the shore ores and the nodules in the bottom sediments in the adjacent Baikal regions has been first shown.     

Mineralogy of morphogenetic types of ferromanganese deposits in the world ocean

The mineralogy and structural features of the main types of ferromanganese deposits—nodules, micronodules, Co-bearing crusts, crustlike nodules, and low-temperature hydrothermal manganese crusts and ferruginous ochers—are considered. The correlation between their mineral composition and structure is shown. The proposed classification of mineral types is based on characteristic assemblages of Fe and Mn minerals.     

Ferromanganese nodules from the Kara Sea: Interrelation between organic matter and ore elements

This study presents data on Fe–Mn nodules first recovered from the northeastern part of the Kara Sea. Analysis of the geochemical indicators of organic matter and major and trace element compositions of nodules showed that samples with strong Mn enrichment (Mn/Fe = 2.38, on average) are dominated by terrestrial organic matter (OM), whereas Fe-rich samples (Mn/Fe = 0.20, on average) are dominated by marine biogenic OM. The variation in the n-alkane abundances in the studied nodules is independent of the sampling sites and nodule morphology. This study was conducted for the first time in the Artic region.

     

Ferromanganese nodules of freshwater reservoirs of Ol’khon Island (Baikal) and the Kulunda Plain (West Siberia)

Morphology and mineralogical and geochemical compositions of freshwater ferromanganese nodules of Ol’khon Island (Sasa Formation) and Kulunda Plain (Lake Porozhnee) were studied. The study has shown rhythmic structures of the nodules, formed by macro- and microlayers with mineralized microflora. The layers are composed of either crystalline Mn mineral phases and finely dispersed Fe phases (Lake Porozhnee) or, on the contrary, crystalline goethite and X-ray amorphous Mn phases (Ol’khon Island). Separation of Mn and Fe mineral phases in the nodules proceeded during their formation and diagenesis. The freshwater nodules show both high (Lake Porozhnee) and low (Ol’khon Island) Mn/Fe ratios. The predominance of Fe phase in the Ol’khon nodules accounts for their high contents of REE, including Ce. The Porozhnee nodules grew, most likely, more rapidly, which is reflected in their low REE contents and Ce anomaly. The examined chemical and mineral compositions, textures, and structures of the nodules testify to the low-temperature hydrothermal source of their ore substance.     

Metalliferous sediments from DSDP Leg 92: The East Pacific Rise transect

The carbonate-free metalliferous fraction of thirty-nine sediment samples from four DSDP Leg 92 sites has been analyzed for 12 elements, and a subset of 16 samples analyzed for Pb isotopic composition. The main geochemical features of this component are as follows: i) very high concentrations of Fe and Mn, typically 25–39% and 5–14%, respectively; ii) Al and Ca contents generally less than 2% and 5%, respectively; iii) high Cu (1000–2000 ppm), and Zn and Ni (500–1000 ppm) values; and iv) Co and Pb concentrations of 100–250 ppm. In terms of element partitioning within the metalliferous fraction, amorphous to poorly crystallized oxide-oxyhydroxides removed by the second leach carry virtually all of the Mn, and about 90% of the Ca, Sr and Ni. The well-crystallized goethite-rich material removed by the third leach carries the majority of Fe, Cu, and Pb. These relations hold for sediments as young as ~ 1–2 Ma, indicating early partitioning of hydrothermal Fe and Mn into separate phases.Calculated mass accumulation rates (MAR) for Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni in the bulk sediment show the same overall trends at three of the sites, with greatest MAR values near the basement, and a general decrease in MAR values towards the tops of the holes (for sediments deposited above the lysocline). These relations strongly support the concept of a declining hydrothermal contribution of these elements away from a ridge axis. Nevertheless, MAR values for these metals up to ~200 km from the ridge axis are orders of magnitude higher than on abyssal seafloor plains where there is no hydrothermal influence. Mn/Fe ratios throughout the sediment column at two sites indicate that the composition of the hydrothermal precipitates changed during transport through seawater, becoming significantly depleted in Mn beyond 2̃00–300 km from the axis, but maintaining roughly the same proportion of Fe.Most of the Pb isotope data for the Leg 92 metalliferous sediments form approximately linear arrays in the conventional isotopic plots, extending from the middle of the field for mid-ocean ridge basalts toward the field for Mn nodules. The array of data lying between these two end-members is most readily interpreted in terms of simple linear mixing of Pb derived from basaltic and seawater end-member sources. The least radiogenic sediments reflect the average Pb isotope composition of discharging hydrothermal solutions and ocean-ridge basalt at the EPR over the ≈4–8 Ma B.P. interval. Pb in sediments deposited up to 250 km from the axis can be almost entirely of basaltic-hydrothermal origin. Lateral transport of some basaltic Pb by ocean currents appears to extend to distances of at least 1000 km west of the East Pacific Rise.     

Hydrothermal Alteration of Limestone and Mineral Exploration of Zn-Pb Skarn Deposits in the Sako-nishi Area of the Kamioka Mine, Central Japan

Abstract: Crystalline limestone of the Sako-nishi area in the Kamioka Zn-Pb mine, central Japan, is depleted in ¹⁸O and ¹³C toward the center of mineralization due to interaction with hydrothermal fluids with a dominant meteoric water component. The relationship between isotopic composition and mineral assemblage, texture, the chemical composition of the minerals, and the bulk chemical composition in the limestone was examined. A decrease in the δ¹⁸OSMOW value correlated with: (1) increase of fine-grained calcite which is enriched in Mn and exhibits a bright cathodoluminescence, (2) progressive hy-drothermal alteration of clinopyroxene in the original limestone into tremolite within the weakly-altered zone, and into chlorite and actinolite within the strongly-altered zone, (3) dominance of hydrothermal chlorite in altered limestone having δ¹⁸O values of less than 10%. This chlorite was enriched in Fe compared to mafic minerals in the unaltered limestone. The enrichment of Fe and Mn was more conspicuous in calcite and chlorite in skarn deposits. The occurrence and chemical composition of hydrothermal minerals in the limestone, skarn, and ore indicate that the ¹⁸O–depleted zones were formed in the later stage from fluids, which were responsible for mineralization and skarnization, and for Fe and Mn enrichment. The Al, Mn, and Fe contents, and the ratios of Mg/(Mg+Mn+Fe), Al/Mg, and Mn/Sr in the hydrochloric acid leachate of limestone varied with decreasing δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values, reflecting increases in high-Mn calcite and high-Fe chlorite. These indexes were useful for the identification of hydrothermally altered limestone. Furthermore, the potential score weighted by each index was more effective and accurate means of detecting promising mineralization zones. An anomalous potential score due to the presence of hydrothermal minerals in the outcropping limestone occurred along the Atotsu–1GO fault. This structure indicates that the skarn deposits of the Sako-nishi area belong to Mozumi-type Zn–Pb skarn deposits, in which fissures and faults served as major passages for the hydrothermal fluid. High-Mn carbonate and high-Fe chlorite widely occur in base-metal vein deposits and Zn-Pb type skarn deposits. Leaching of altered rock with hydrochloric acid in addition to stable isotope composition and cathodoluminescence imaging is effective for geochemical exploration for hydrothermal deposits because it makes possible the detection of the elemental composition of hydrothermal minerals such as chlorite and carbonate and because of the rapidity and convenience of analysis.     

Improved methods for selective dissolution of Mn oxides: applications for studying trace element associations

The association of rare earth and other trace elements with Fe and Mn oxides was studied in Fe-Mn-nodules from a lateritic soil from Serra do Navio (Northern Brazil). Two improved methods of selective dissolution by hydroxylamine hydrochloride and acidified hydrogen peroxide along with a classical Na–citrate–bicarbonate–dithionite method were used. The two former reagents were used to dissolve Mn oxides without significant dissolution of Fe oxides, and the latter reagent was used to dissolve both Mn and Fe oxides. Soil nodules and matrix were separated by hand. Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after fusion with lithium metaborate, and X-ray diffraction were used to determine the elemental and mineralogical composition of the nodules and soil matrix. The latter was composed of kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite, hematite, and quartz. In the nodules, lithiophorite LiAl₂(Mn^IV₂Mn^III)O₆(OH)₆ was detected in addition to the above-mentioned minerals. The presence of hollandite (BaMn₈O₁₆) and/or coronadite (PbMn₈O₁₆) in the nodules is also possible. In comparison to the matrix, the nodules were enriched in Mn, Fe, K, and P, and relatively poor in Si, Al, and Ti. The nodules were also enriched in all trace elements determined. Phosphorus, As and Cr were associated mainly with Fe oxides; Cu, Ni, and V were associated with both Fe and Mn oxides; and Ba, Co, and Pb were associated mainly with Mn oxides. Distribution of rare earth elements indicated a strong positive Ce-anomaly in the nodules, compared to the absence of any anomaly in the matrix. Some of Ce was associated with Mn oxides. The improved methods achieved almost complete release of Mn from the sample without decreasing the selectivity of dissolution, i.e., without dissolving significant amounts of Fe oxides and other minerals, and provided reliable information on associations of trace elements with Mn oxides. These methods are thus proposed to be included in sequential extraction schemes for fractionation of trace elements in soils and sediments.     

Mineral chemistry of columbite–tantalite from spodumene pegmatites of Kolmozero,Kola Peninsula (Russia)

Compositional variation (results of electron microprobe analyses and mass-spectrometry analyses) of columbite-group minerals (CGM) from fully differentiated albite–spodumene pegmatites at Kolmozero in the Kola Peninsula is evaluated. Concentric zoning, typical of rare-metal pegmatites, was not observed in the Kolmozero pegmatites. Columbite-group minerals occur in all main parageneses of the pegmatites and form four generations, reflecting the sequence of pegmatite formation. These minerals demonstrate wide variations in the content of major and trace elements. The composition of CGM ranges from columbite-(Fe) to tantalite-(Mn). Fractionation trends were observed in Mn/(Mn + Fe) versus Ta/(Ta + Nb) diagrams and trace-element abundances plotted versus XTa and XMn. The early CGM paragenesis is characterized by homogeneous, oscillatory and progressive oscillatory zoning and corresponds to a primary magmatic type. Late-generation CGM show patchy irregular internal textures replacing earlier regular patterns of zoning. The irregular zoning points to metasomatic replacement processes. For the first time, it is shown that distributions of rare earth elements (REE) in CGM reflect the evolution of a pegmatite-forming system. At Kolmozero, the main trend of REE variation from early to late generations of CGM involves decreasing total REE contents due to a decrease in heavy REE and Y, decreasing negative Eu anomaly and decreasing magnitude of M-shape tetrad effect between Gd and Ho. These changes are accompanied by gradual flattening of the “bird-like” patterns of chondrite-normalized REE distribution. All these features are typical for late differentiates of granitic volatile-rich magma. Late metasomatic tantalite-(Mn) is characterized by sharp changes in its REE distribution pattern: decreasing total REE contents, changing shape of the REE distribution pattern, the absence of Eu anomaly and tetrad effects, and the appearance of a negative Ce anomaly. The textural characteristics and mineral chemistry of CGM indicate that the pegmatite-forming system underwent several stages of evolution. The earliest magmatic stage can be divided into two sub-stages, involving direct crystallization and collective recrystallization, respectively, and was succeeded by a late hydrothermal–metasomatic post-magmatic stage. Variations in chemical composition among the different generations of CGM are explained by the interplay of several processes: fractional crystallization; competitive crystallization of main rock-forming (feldspar, muscovite, spodumene) and accessory (triphylyte–lithiophilite, spessartine, fluorapatite, zircon, microlite) minerals; and evolution of the mineral-forming environment from a melt to a hydrothermal–metasomatic fluid.     

Effects of Bioirrigation and Salinity on Arsenic Distributions in Ferruginous Concretions from Salt Marsh Sediment Cores (Southern Brazil)

Arsenic (As), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) contents were measured in sediment nodules and associated pore waters obtained from sediment cores collected from a salt marsh on Pólvora Island (southern Brazil). Sediment cores were obtained when brackish water dominated the estuary, at two different environments: an unvegetated mudflat colonized by crabs (Neohelice granulata), and a low intertidal stand vegetated by Spartina alterniflora. We determined the percentage of nodules in each depth interval of the cores, along with redox potential, and As, Fe, and Mn contents of the nodules. The mineralogy of the nodules was investigated, and results showed they are mainly composed by quartz, phyllosilicates, and amorphous Fe–Mn oxides/oxyhydroxides. Pore water results showed that bioturbation by local crabs supports oxygen penetration to depths of ca. 25 cm below the salt marsh surface, with lower Fe contents in pore water associated with the brackish period. However, S. alterniflora growth appears to have a greater impact on sediment geochemistry of Fe, Mn, and possibly As due to sulfate reduction and the associated decrease in pore water pH. Higher Fe concentrations were observed in the pore waters during the period of brackish water dominance, which also corresponded to the S. alterniflora growth season. The study demonstrates that differences in geochemical conditions (e.g., Fe content) that can develop in salt marsh sediments owing to different types of bioirrigation processes (i.e., bioirrigation driven by crabs versus that related to the growth of S. alterniflora) play important roles in the biogeochemical cycling of As.

     

Using trace elements of magnetite to constrain the origin of the Pingchuan hydrothermal low-Ti magnetite deposit in the Panxi area,SW China

The Pingchuan iron deposit, located in the Yanyuan region of Sichuan Province, SW China, has an ore reserve of 40 Mt with ~ 60 wt% Fe. Its genesis is still poorly understood. The Pingchuan iron deposit has a paragenetic sequence of an early Fe-oxide–Pyrite stage (I) and a late Fe-oxide–pyrrhotite stage (II). Stage I magnetite grains are generally fragmented, euhedral–subhedral, large-sized crystals accompanying with slightly postdated pyrite. Stage II magnetite grains are mostly unfragmented, anhedral, relatively small-sized grains that co-exist with pyrrhotite. Combined with micro-textural features and previously-obtained geochronological data, we consider that these two stages of iron mineralization in the Pingchuan deposit correspond to the Permian ELIP magmatism and Cenozoic fault activity event. Both the Stage I and II magnetites are characterized with overall lower contents of trace elements (including Cr, Ti, V, and Ni) than the ELIP magmatic magnetite, which suggests a hydrothermal origin for them. “Skarn-like” enrichment in Sn, Mn, and Zn in the Stage I magnetite grains indicate significant material contributions from carbonate wall-rocks due to water–rock interaction in ore-forming processes. Stage II magnetite grains contain higher Mn concentrations than Stage I magnetite grains, which possibly implies more contribution from carbonate rocks. In multiple-element diagrams, the Stage I magnetite shows systematic similarities to Kiruna-type magnetite rather than those from other types of deposits. Combined with geological features and previous studies on oxygen isotopes, we conclude that hydrothermal fluids have played a key role in the generation of the Pingchuan low-Ti iron deposit.

     

Textural,chemical and isotopic variations induced by hydrothermal fluids on mesozoic limestones in northwestern Sicily

The results are given of textural and compositional investigations carried out on carbonate materials outcropping in various localities in northwestern Sicily where fluorite, barite and calcite mineralizations of hydrothermal origin occur. Observation of the textural features indicate variations in the degree of calcite recrystallization and silicification that appear to be more marked in rocks that show more evident effects of mineralization. The geochemical behaviour of the minor elements indicate variations in chemical composition (increase of Mn, Fe, and Sr and removal of Mg) as a result of interactions between mineralizing fluids and host-rocks. Comparison between the isotopic compositions of oxygen and carbon in mineralized and unmineralized limestones shows that isotopic exchange took place between CaCO₃ and hydrothermal fluids. The values obtained support relatively short limestone/water contact times and moderate temperature values. It is suggested that the ore-forming solutions were essentially heated meteoric waters. Precipitation of the fluorite was caused by temperature decrease, reaction with Ca-rich wall rock, and increase in pH of initially rather acid hydrothermal solutions.This work was supported by a grant from the Ente Minerario Siciliano.     

Late Quaternary high-temperature geyserites in the Ol’khon area,Baikal rift zone: Petrography,mineralogy, chemical composition,and genesis

Late Quaternary geyserites in the Ol’khon area, Baikal rift zone, are a geologically and petrologically unique rocks, which may provide information on the character of hydrothermal processes during the development of modern rift zones. The geyserites of this area are characterized by the presence of minerals atypical of such rocks: highly crystalline graphite (which is usually formed at high temperatures) and α-carbyne (which is a natural carbon modification that has been previously found only among products of experiments). Other newly formed minerals of the geyserites are equilibrium chalcedony, talc, and tremolite. This suggests that the rocks were formed under conditions significantly different from those under which classic geyserites are produced. Geyserites in the Ol’khon area were most probably produced by silica-saturated solutions rich in certain ore components (Fe, Mn, Sb, As, and Y) and heated to temperatures of about 400°C.     

Using cocrystallization coefficients of isomorphous admixtures for determination of element concentrations in ore-forming solutions (by the example of Mn/Fe ratio in magnetite)

The cocrystallization coefficient of Mn and Fe (D_Mn/Fe) in magnetite crystals is determined in hydrothermal-growth experiments with internal sampling at 450 and 500 °C and 100 MPa (1 kbar). It is weakly dependent on temperature in the studied PT-region and is constant over a wide range of Mn/Fe values. This permits using the magnetite composition as an indicator of Mn/Fe in the fluid under equilibrium: (Mn/Fe)_aq ≈ 100 (Mn/Fe)_mt. Since Mn is often a macrocomponent of the fluid and a microcomponent of magnetite, local analysis of fluid inclusions for Mn might help to determine Fe even in iron minerals. This will permit evaluation of the contents of other ore metals if the D_Me/Fe values are known. For fine crystals (< 0.1–0.2 mm) with low contents of Mn (< 0.01–0.02%), it is necessary to take into account the fractionation of Mn into the surficial nonautonomous phase, in which its content can reach several percent. Comparison of these data with earlier data on the distribution of Mn in the system magnetite–pyrite–pyrrhotite–greenockite–hydrothermal solution shows that D_Mn/Fe remains constant in the presence of sulfur and sulfides. Precipitation of magnetite, in which Mn is a compatible admixture, cannot affect radically Mn/Fe in the solution because of the low D_Mn/Fe value. This effect is still more unlikely for pyrrhotite and pyrite, in which Mn is an incompatible admixture. The most probable mechanism of Mn fractionation into the solid phase is crystallization of FeOOH at lower temperatures. This is indirectly supported by the strong fractionation of Mn into the nonautonomous oxyhydroxide phase on the surface of magnetite crystals. The necessity of a more rigorous validation of “the new Fe/Mn geothermometer for hydrothermal systems” is substantiated.     

Composition and formation of fossil manganese nodules in Jurassic to Cretaceous radiolarites from the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex (NW Costa Rica)

Horizons of several types of Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous manganese nodules occur locally in sequences of radiolarian cherts within the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex (NW Costa Rica). Field studies, X-ray diffraction analysis, petrographic, chemical and experimental studies give evidence of a sedimentary, early diagenetic origin of the nodules, in contrast to earlier suggestions. Smooth, discoidal, compact and very dense nodules with diameters of some mm to 9 cm dominate. They are characterized by braunite, hollandite, pyrolusite and quartz as well as 39–61% Mn, 0.9–1.6% Fe, 5–26% SiO₂, 1.3–1.9% A1₂O₃, 1.5–3.0% Ba, 460–5400 ppm Cu, 85–340 ppm Ni and 40–130 ppm Co, among others. It is suggested that the original mineralogy (todorokite?) was altered during thermometamorphic (braunite) and hydrothermal (hollandite, pyrolusite) events. Petrographic similarities between the fossil nodules and modern deep-sea nodules are striking. Using standard hydrothermal techniques in an experimental study it is shown that under special conditions, braunite can be produced from modern nodule material.     

锰结核生长与沉积环境的关系

本文收集了48组世界大洋各种沉积环境锰结核化学组成和生长速率数据并计算了它们的铁锰通量；讨论了不同环境的锰结核的铁锰含量之间的关系，以及锰通量与铁通量、Mn/Fe比的相关性；导出了由锰结核锰铁含量计算生长速率的经验关系；从本质上揭示了锰结核化学组成、生长速率与沉积环境的内在联系，为探讨锰结核形成机理提供了有力的依据。     

Modern Bottom Sediments of Lake Onega: Structure,Mineralogical Composition,and Systematization of Rare-Earth Elements

The results of studying the structure and mineral composition of the Upper Holocene bottom sediments of Lake Onega are presented. It is established that there are two types of columns of bottom sediments, for which stratification of layers and formation of Fe–Mn crusts are determined by the diagenesis processes occurring under physicochemical conditions of sediment accumulation according to two scenarios. The distribution spectra of rare-earth elements (REEs) are different in the indicated types of columns, which is apparently attributed to the differences in the oxidation–reduction conditions at the water–sediment interface during the formation of REEs and possibly to the influence of hydrothermal processes.     

Paleosol geochemistry of the late Paleocene Goler Formation of Southern California

Paleosol (fossilized soil) geochemistry can provide a record of paleoclimatic conditions due to the relationships between pedogenic processes and climate. In this study, paleosols from the late Paleocene Goler Formation of Southern California were used to determine the paleoclimatic conditions active during pedogenesis. The enrichment and retention of soluble elements (Ca, Mg and Na) and the mobilization of Fe and Mn within the paleosol profiles suggest a climate with strongly seasonal precipitation. Similarly, variations in the Mn content and δ¹³C ratio of pedogenic carbonate nodules also reflect seasonal precipitation. Regional paleotopography was likely an important control on the paleoclimate of the Goler Formation due to rain shadow effects. Although the size and location of these ancient mountains are poorly constrained, the identification of climatic effects specifically associated with these variables provides new constraints.     

Rare elements and Nd and Sr isotopic composition in micronodules from the Brazil Basin,Atlantic Ocean

The Sr isotope stratigraphy of the biogenic apatite was used to determine the age of pelagic sediments in the Brazil Basin (Station 1541) that contain ferromanganese micronodules, nodules, and coatings on the weathered volcanic rocks. The age of sediments at horizons 0–5 and 86–90 cm was estimated at 24.1 ± 0.2 Ma and 24.8 ± 0.2 Ma, respectively. The average sedimentation rate in the Late Oligocene was about 13 mm/ka. The hydrogenous Fe–Mn nodule on the sediment surface with the Mn/Fe value of 1.05–1.95 was formed at a rate of 1.2–2.4 mm/Ma, which is 1000 times lower than the growth rate of buried nodule (Mn/Fe 0.4) at depth of 83 cm. Diagenesis provoked changes in the mineral composition of the buried nodule (asbolane-buserite partially replaced by goethite), leading to the loss of a part of Mn, Ni, Li, and Tl but accumulation of trace elements linked with iron oxyhydroxides (Ce, Th, Be, As, and V) were retained. The composition of manganese micronodules at two studied depths in sediments evolved in the course of two stages of ore formation: related to the oxic and suboxic diagenesis. The Sr isotopic composition in manganese micronodules from both horizons do not differ from that of dissolved Sr in the ocean water. The ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratio, which reflects the Nd isotopic composition in the paleocean during the micronodule formation, varies in manganese micronodules from different horizons and is constant in different size fractions.     

Geochemical criteria of the Upper Sinian cherts of hydrothermal origin on the southeast continental margin of the Yangtze plate

The Upper Sinian bedded cherts are widely distributed on the southeast continental margin of the Yangtze plate, with a total thickness ranging from 20 to 150 m. The cherts are very simple in chemical composition, with the contents of siliceous minerals exceeding 90% and those of other mineral species being very low. The total content of trace elements is considerably variable. The contents of most trace elements are low as compared with their crust clarke values. But these cherts are very rich in the trace elements Ba, As, Ab, Ag and U, coupled with relatively high contents of Fe, Mn and low contents of Al, Ti, and Mg. It can be identified as the cherts of hydrothermal origin in terms of the values of Fe/Ti, (Fe + Mn)/Ti, Al/ (Al + Fe + Mn) and U/Th. In the Al-Fe-Mn, and Fe-Mn-(Cu + Ni + Co) × 10 diagrams and lg [U]-lg[Th], Cr-Zr diagrams, all the samples from the area studied fall within the hydrothermal sediment field. All these characteristics show that the cherts are mainly the product of hydrothermal processes. The fact that the δ³⁰Si values of the chert range from 0.0‰ to 0.7‰ with §¹⁸O from 20.l‰ to 23.6‰ clearly manifests that the submarine hydrothermal water is the main source of silica.     

Magnetite geochemistry of the Longqiao and Tieshan Fe–(Cu) deposits in the Middle-Lower Yangtze River Belt: Implications for deposit type and ore genesis

Magnetite is a common mineral in many ore deposits and their host rocks, and contains a wide range of trace elements (e.g., Ti, V, Mg, Cr, Mn, Ca, Al, Ni, Ga, Sn) that can be used for deposit type fingerprinting. In this study, we present new magnetite geochemical data for the Longqiao Fe deposit (Luzong ore district) and Tieshan Fe–(Cu) deposit (Edong ore district), which are important magmatic-hydrothermal deposits in eastern China.Textural features, mineral assemblages and paragenesis of the Longqiao and Tieshan ore samples have suggested the presence of two main mineralization periods (sedimentary and hydrothermal) at Longqiao, among which the hydrothermal period comprises four stages (skarn, magnetite, sulfide and carbonate); whilst the Tieshan Fe–(Cu) deposit comprises four mineralization stages (skarn, magnetite, quartz-sulfide and carbonate).Magnetite from the Longqiao and Tieshan deposits has different geochemistry, and can be clearly discriminated by the Sn vs. Ga, Ni vs. Cr, Ga vs. Al, Ni vs. Al, V vs. Ti, and Al vs. Mg diagrams. Such difference may be applied to distinguish other typical skarn (Tieshan) and multi-origin hydrothermal (Longqiao) deposits in the MLYRB. The fluid–rock interactions, influence of the co-crystallizing minerals and other physicochemical parameters, such as temperature and fO₂, may have altogether controlled the magnetite trace element contents of both deposits. The Tieshan deposit may have had higher degree of fO₂, but lower fluid–rock interactions and ore-forming temperature than the Longqiao deposit. The TiO₂–Al₂O₃–(MgO + MnO) and (Ca + Al + Mn) vs. (Ti + V) magnetite discrimination diagrams show that the Longqiao Fe deposit has both sedimentary and hydrothermal features, whereas the Tieshan Fe–(Cu) deposit is skarn-type and was likely formed via hydrothermal metasomatism, consistent with the ore characteristics observed.