The vertical turbulence structure of experimental turbidity currents encountering basal obstructions: implications for vertical suspended sediment distribution in non‐equilibrium currents

Large roughness features, caused by erosion of the sea floor, are commonly observed on the modern sea floor and beneath turbidite sandstone beds in outcrop. This paper aims to investigate the effect of such roughness elements on the turbulent velocity field and its consequences for the sediment carrying capacity of the flows. Experimental turbidity currents were run through a rectangular channel, with a single roughness element fixed to the bottom in some runs. The effect of this roughness element on the turbulent velocity field was determined by measuring vertical profiles of the vertical velocity component in the region downstream of the basal obstruction with the Ultrasonic Doppler Velocity Profiling technique. The experiments were set up to answer two research questions. (i) How does a single roughness element alter the distribution of vertical turbulence intensity? (ii) How does the altered profile evolve in the downstream direction? The results for runs over a plane substrate are similar to data presented previously and show a lower turbulence maximum near the channel floor, a turbulence minimum associated with the velocity maximum, and a turbulence maximum associated with the upper flow interface. In the runs in which the flows were perturbed by the single roughness element, the intensity of the lower turbulence maximum was increased between 41% to 81%. This excess turbulence dissipated upwards in the flow while it travelled further downstream, but was still observable at the most distal measurement location (at a distance ca 39 times the roughness height downstream of the element). All results point towards a similarity between the near bed turbulence structure of turbidity currents and free surface shear flows that has been proposed by previous authors, and this proposition is supported further by the apparent success of a shear velocity estimation method that is based on this similarity. Theory of turbulent dispersal of suspended sediment is used to discuss how the observed turbulent effects of a single large roughness element may impact on the suspended sediment distribution in real world turbidity currents. It is concluded that this impact may consist of a non‐equilibrium net‐upwards transport of suspended sediment, counteracting density stratification. Thus, erosive substrate topography created by frontal parts of natural turbidity flows may super‐elevate sediment concentrations in upper regions above equilibrium values in following flow stages, delay depletion of the flow via sedimentation and increase their run‐out distance.     

选沙相似律对模型沙波相似性影响的试验研究

为了弄清选沙相似律对动床模型沙波相似性的影响,开展基于起动相似等3种不同相似律选择模型沙的沙波水槽试验。基于试验观测的沙波波高、波长以及沙波不同部位的水深、流速,对比分析了沙波尺度及其随水流强度变化过程的相似性。结果表明:当模型沙重率、形状与原型沙相同时,满足起动相似的模型沙沙波尺度与原型相似性最高,满足悬浮相似模型沙的沙波整体偏高、偏长,兼顾起动与悬浮相似的模型沙介于两者之间;不同选沙相似律不影响沙波波高、波长随相对水流强度的变化规律,满足不同相似律的模型沙沙波波高均在相同的相对水流强度达到最大值,波长随相对水流强度增大而增大。说明偏离起动相似越少,沙波相似程度越高。     

Modelling of turbidity currents on Navy Submarine Fan, California Continental Borderland

Several Holocene turbidites can be correlated across much of Navy Fan through more than 100 sediment core localities. The uppermost muddy turbidite unit is mapped throughout the northern half of the fan; its volume, grain-size distribution and the maximum height of deposition on the basin slopes are known. These parameters can be related to the precise channel morphology and mesotopography revealed by deep-tow surveys. Thus there is sufficient information to estimate detailed flow characteristics for this turbidity current as it moved from fan valley to distal basin plain. On the upper fan, the gradient and the increasing downstream width of the channel and only limited flow overspill suggest that the flow had a Froude number close to 1.0. The sediment associated with the channel indicates friction velocities of about 0.06 m s^?1 and flow velocities of about 0.75 m s^?1. Using this flow velocity and channel dimensions, sediment concentration (～2×10^?3) and discharge are estimated, and from a knowledge of the total volume of sediment deposited, the flow duration is estimated to be from 2 to 9 days. It is shown that the estimates of Froude number, drag coefficient, and sediment concentration are not likely to vary by more than a factor of 2. On the mid-fan, the flow was much thicker than the height of the surface relief of the fan and it spread rapidly. The cross-flow slope, determined from the horizontal extent of turbidite sediment, is used to estimate flow velocity, which is confirmed by consideration of both sediment grain size and rate of deposition. This again allows sediment concentration and discharge to be estimated. The requirements of flow continuity, entrainment of water during flow expansion, and observed sediment deposition provide checks on all these estimates, and provide an integrated picture of the evolution of the flow. The flow characteristics of this muddy turbidity current are well constrained compared to those for more sand-rich late Pleistocene and early Holocene turbidity currents on the fan.     

宽浅陡槽水流动量分布特性及影响分析

对宽浅陡槽水流特性及其对下游消能衔接影响进行了试验研究。首先通过对浅层急流边界层的发展、掺气特点的分析探讨,得到了宽浅陡槽水流阻力损失比一般陡槽急流大许多的能量损耗特点及相应流速系数的范围值。分析了不同水流、边界条件下宽浅陡槽水流动量分布的特性,发现宽深比<40而流量较大时,陡槽末端呈“马鞍型”动量横向分布,具有较强的稳定性与抗干扰性;宽深比>40而流量较小时,陡槽末端呈“椭圆型”动量横向分布,这种态势缺乏对外界干扰的遏制能力,稳定性很差。指出,宽浅陡槽末端水流不稳定源于浅层急流断面动量横向分布缺乏强大的两翼控制,形成微小干扰累加递增作用,最终导致末端水跃的不稳与消能不充分,并提出了调整动量分布改善下游衔接水流稳定性的措施。     

Influence of friction on erosion and accretion processes in the Yavaros Bay,Gulf of California

A two-dimensional, vertically integrated, nonlinear numerical model was applied to investigate the tide-driven bed load transport of sediments and morphodynamics in the shallow coastal lagoon of Yavaros, located in the southeastern part of the Gulf of California, Mexico. Satellite imagery exposes strong sediment dynamics in this coastal region. The dynamics in the lagoon were forced by 13 tidal constituents at the open boundary. Tides are of a mixed character and they are predominantly semidiurnal. The calculations showed areas of intense tidal currents and considerable water exchange with the Gulf of California. Numerical experiments revealed an ebb-dominant tidal distortion and a net export of sediment from the lagoon to the Gulf of California. A simulation of 20 years showed that the lagoon exported about 1,600 m³ of sediment; however, the daily oscillating exchange of sediment reached values of around 8 m³. The daily averaged flux of export–import sediments oscillates principally with semiannual, monthly and fortnightly periods. By applying a threshold velocity, a variable friction coefficient and the calculated amplitude of tidal velocities, it was possible to determine that morphological changes occur in zones of sharp topographic gradients and to explain the effect of friction on the export–import process of sediments. A 10-year simulation revealed that accumulation of sediment (~20 cm) occurred in small areas, whereas erosion occurred in larger areas but with less intensity (~8 cm). Besides the importance for the morphodynamics, these kinds of erosion–accretion processes may be relevant for the marine ecology.     

Bedform topography and basal conditions beneath a fast-flowing West Antarctic ice stream

A grid of seismic reflection lines has been used to image basal topography and infer basal conditions and flow processes beneath ～140 km² of Rutford Ice Stream, West Antarctica. The subglacial topography in this region consists of two troughs flanking a central high and the bed is composed of water-saturated sediments. The two troughs are filled with deforming sediment, whereas the bed in the central region appears to undergo a transition from largely deforming conditions upstream to basal sliding downstream. The deforming bed is very flat along flow, but undulates across flow. Sliding areas show rougher bed topography. Cross-stream bed topography is characterised by streamlined mounds of deforming sediment aligned in the ice flow direction. These bedforms occur superimposed on the bed in regions of both basal sliding and sediment deformation. In places, they form finger-like mounds of material, which extend into the sliding region further downstream. Mean bedform height is 22 m, mean width is 267 m, and many of them extend for at least 1–2 km along flow. We interpret most of these bedforms as drumlins and one as a mega-scale glacial lineation. The juxtaposition of different basal conditions is consistent with models proposed from terrestrial studies in which the glacier bed is a mosaic of stable and deforming bed areas, variable both spatially and temporally. Any theory of subglacial sediment rheology must also be able to account for our conclusion that, at any given time, pervasive deformation extends at least a few metres into the bed and can persist over a considerable area (many km²). Bedform geometry and basal conditions concur with interpretations of former ice streams, with evidence for increasing elongation ratio with distance downstream. However, those studies also identified bedrock cropping out at the ice-bed interface, for which there is no evidence on Rutford Ice Stream.     

A nearshore model to investigate the effects of seagrass bed geometry on wave attenuation and suspended sediment transport

The effects of seagrass bed geometry on wave attenuation and suspended sediment transport were investigated using a modified Nearshore Community Model (NearCoM). The model was enhanced to account for cohesive sediment erosion and deposition, sediment transport, combined wave and current shear stresses, and seagrass effects on drag. Expressions for seagrass drag as a function of seagrass shoot density and canopy height were derived from published flume studies of model vegetation. The predicted reduction of volume flux for steady flow through a bed agreed reasonably well with a separate flume study. Predicted wave attenuation qualitatively captured seasonal patterns observed in the field: wave attenuation peaked during the flowering season and decreased as shoot density and canopy height decreased. Model scenarios with idealized bathymetries demonstrated that, when wave orbital velocities and the seagrass canopy interact, increasing seagrass bed width in the direction of wave propagation results in higher wave attenuation, and increasing incoming wave height results in higher relative wave attenuation. The model also predicted lower skin friction, reduced erosion rates, and higher bottom sediment accumulation within and behind the bed. Reduced erosion rates within seagrass beds have been reported, but reductions in stress behind the bed require further studies for verification. Model results suggest that the mechanism of sediment trapping by seagrass beds is more complex than reduced erosion rates alone; it also requires suspended sediment sources outside of the bed and horizontal transport into the bed.     

黄河河口段一维水流泥沙数学模型

针对黄河河口段河道来水来沙特性和河道冲淤演变特点,综合考虑了断面上水沙分布和冲淤分布不均匀,阻力变化、河口三角洲淤积延伸等问题,建立了黄河利津以下河口段一维水流泥沙数学模型。用该模型对多年汛期和冬季河口段内水沙进行验证计算表明:计算结果与实测结果基本吻合。本模型可用来预测河口段内沿程不同时刻水位、含沙量及河床冲淤的变化过程。     

Some new aspects of two-dimensional turbidity currents*

A theoretical consideration of two dimensional underflows and surge-type turbidity currents results in a general momentum equation. A number of formulae in current use are special cases of this equation, among which are the modified Chézy equation and Bagnold's criterion for autosuspension. Five dimensionless parameters are included: the Richardson number Ri (defined as the inverse square of the Froude number), the friction coefficient c_f, the slope β, the dimensionless settling velocity of the sediment V_s/u and the changes in flow height with distance dD/dx. The latter is mainly a measure of the dilution by entrainment of ambient water. For chalk powder experiments on surge type turbidity currents and on the initial front of continuous underflows the momentum equation is shown to be correct. Values for Ri range from about 1.5 at 0° slope to about 0.75 at 5° and are slightly to substantially lower than values from earlier authors. The two types of turbidity currents investigated show close similarity. A surprising attribute is their strong dilution even at very low-angle slopes. Pelitic sedimentation is possible from the upper, dilute part of the currents, graded intervals found at the base of turbidites can be explained as bedload deposits from the lowermost, concentrated layer of the current; hydraulic jumps are expected to be rare in surge-type turbidity currents and fronts of incipient underflows.     

推移质翻越低坝输移特性的试验研究

对于山区河流低坝而言,平时淤积在坝前的推移质粗沙可能会在洪水期集中翻越坝顶,形成高强度输沙。本文开展水槽试验,研究推移质粗沙自上游起动、推进、再翻越坝顶后向下游输移的过程,分析了输沙参数的变化特性及数理规律,描述了翻坝输沙模式及运动特征,揭示了输沙规律与河床形态之间的自然联系。取得如下认识:①输沙量随时间大致以幂函数规律增长。②低坝附近区域河床形态终将趋于稳定,上游和下游均形成相对稳定的曲面斜坡淤积体。③在不同的水流强度下推移质翻坝输移模式存在差异。对于一般水流强度工况,上游淤积体曲面斜坡表面泥沙颗粒以滚动或滑动模式起动,推移至接近坝顶位置时再跃移翻坝,后向下游输移;对于更高水流强度工况,后期的翻坝输沙模式可能发生显著转变,周期性边壁漩涡成为翻坝输沙的主要动力来源。     

Emplacement of massive deposits by sheet flow

Turbidity current and coastal storm deposits are commonly characterized by a basal sandy massive (structureless) unit overlying an erosional surface and underlying a parallel or cross-laminated unit. Similar sequences have been recently identified in fluvial settings as well. Notwithstanding field, laboratory and numerical studies, the mechanisms for emplacement of these massive basal units are still under debate. It is well accepted that the sequence considered here can be deposited by waning-energy flows, and that the parallel-laminated units are deposited under transport conditions corresponding to upper plane bed at the dune–antidune transition. Thus, transport conditions that are more intense than those at the dune–antidune transition should deposit massive units. This study presents experimental, open-channel flow results showing that sandy massive units can be the result of gradual deposition from a thick bedload layer of colliding grains called sheet flow layer. When this layer forms with relatively coarse sand, the non-dimensional bed shear stress associated with skin friction, the Shields number, is larger than a threshold value approximately equal to 0·4. For values of the Shields number smaller than 0·4 the sheet flow layer disappeared, sediment was transported by a standard bedload layer one or two grain diameters thick, and the bed configuration was characterized by downstream migrating antidunes and washed out dunes. Parallel laminae were found in deposits emplaced with standard bedload transport demonstrating that the same dilute flow can gradually deposit the basal and the parallel-laminated unit in presence of traction at the depositional boundary. Further, the experiments suggested that two different types of upper plane bed conditions can be defined, one associated with standard bedload transport at the dune–antidune transition, and the other associated with bedload transport in sheet flow mode at the transition between upstream and downstream migrating antidunes.     

单向流边界层泥沙起动规律

Shields曲线常用于表示泥沙起动的临界条件,基于边界层理论,对Shields曲线各个流区的线型进行了推证;考虑粘结力的作用,对Shields参数及Shields曲线进行了修正,并给出修正Shields曲线表达式;在此基础之上,从边界层角度重新阐述了Shields曲线。结果表明:Shields曲线在光滑紊流及层流区呈直线分布,在过渡区与阻力系数线型保持一致,在粗糙紊流区呈水平直线分布;修正后Shields曲线与原始Shields曲线在形式上保持一致,修正Shields曲线表达式与实测数据吻合较好,适用于粗、细颗粒泥沙起动条件的计算;Shields曲线事实上代表了Shields参数与沙粒周围绕流流态的关系,同一颗粒处于不同流区起动时,其起动切应力不同。     

Suspended-Sediment Flux and Retention in a Backwater Tidal Slough Complex near the Landward Boundary of an Estuary

Backwater tidal sloughs are commonly found at the landward boundary of estuaries. The Cache Slough complex is a backwater tidal region within the Upper Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta that includes two features that are relevant for resource managers: (1) relatively high abundance of the endangered fish, delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus), which prefers turbid water and (2) a recently flooded shallow island, Liberty Island, that is a prototype for habitat restoration. We characterized the turbidity around Liberty Island by measuring suspended-sediment flux at four locations from July 2008 through December 2010. An estuarine turbidity maximum in the backwater Cache Slough complex is created by tidal asymmetry, a limited tidal excursion, and wind-wave resuspension. During the study, there was a net export of sediment, though sediment accumulates within the region from landward tidal transport during the dry season. Sediment is continually resuspended by both wind waves and flood tide currents. The suspended-sediment mass oscillates within the region until winter freshwater flow pulses flush it seaward. The hydrodynamic characteristics within the backwater region such as low freshwater flow during the dry season, flood tide dominance, and a limited tidal excursion favor sediment retention.     

Free convection along a vertical wall in a porous medium with periodic permeability variation

This communication investigates the effect of permeability variation on free convection flow and heat transfer in a porous medium bounded by a vertical porous wall. A transverse periodic variation in permeability is considered to study the effect on heat transfer rate and skin friction. The problem becomes three-dimensional due to the variation in permeability. Analytical expressions for velocity, temperature, skin friction and rate of heat transfer are obtained using the perturbation technique. Effects of permeability and suction parameters on skin friction and heat transfer is studied and it is found that the increase in permeability creates a higher heat transfer rate and greater skin friction. However, the increase in suction parameter causes the skin friction values to decrease. The results obtained will be useful in the design of steam displacement processes in oil recovery and various geothermal systems.     

基于高速摄像技术的推移质运动特征试验

在明渠中开展不同水流条件下低强度均匀沙平衡输沙试验,基于灰度相减方法分析整个床面推移质运动特征,以探寻紊流结构与推移质运动之间的作用机理。结果表明:①受水槽横向方向水流强度分布特征影响,推移质运动概率从水槽中线到两侧壁逐渐变小,且基本呈对称分布;②在紊流相干结构作用下,推移质床面在紊流低速条带区形成凸槽,高速条带区形成凹槽,推移质运动概率沿水槽横向方向存在高低相间的带状分区;③随摩阻雷诺数增大,相邻两推移质运动高概率区域的间距值变化范围为0.13~0.24倍水槽宽度,其值随摩阻雷诺数增大而增大;④不同水流条件下,推移质运动高概率区域间距值约为水深的2倍,这与流向涡模型吻合,表明流向涡是诱导床面出现凹凸相间形态的重要因素。     

弯曲海底峡谷中浊流的三维流动及沉积的初步研究

海底浊流的运动及其沉积,是目前浊流研究的热点之一。根据经过验证的基于雷诺平均纳维尔-斯托克斯方程及浮力项修正 k-ε 湍流模型的三维数值计算模型模拟了海底弯曲圆弧形峡谷内的浊流的流动和沉积,结果表明:（1）浊流在运动过程中由于对环境水体的夹带厚度不断增加,浊流厚度一般会超过峡谷深度,溢出峡谷,使浊流产生密度和动量损失;（2）浊流到达弯道部分后,由于离心力的作用会产生剥离,溢出更多的浊流至漫滩区域。浊流剥离的最大处为弯道顶点外岸下游处,其过量密度可达入流的37.5%;（3）对于模拟的横剖面为圆弧型的峡谷内的浊流来说,弯道顶点处的二次流在底部形成一个顺时针的循环圈,靠近峡谷底部从外岸指向内岸;（4）在峡谷中间及弯道顶点内岸下游处形成沉积,在弯道顶点外岸下游处形成侵蚀。这些特征对根据浊流的沉积观察推测其形成环境及油气储层的调查等方面有一定的参考意义。     

Flow and sediment dynamics in a low sinuosity, braided river: Calamus River, Nebraska Sandhills

The interaction between channel geometry, flow, sediment transport and deposition associated with a midstream island was studied in a braided to meandering reach of the Calamus River, Nebraska Sandhills. Hydraulic and sediment transport measurements were made over a large discharge range using equipment operated from catwalk bridges. The relatively low sinuosity channel on the right-hand side of the island carries over 70% of the water discharge at high flow stages and 50–60% at low flow stages. As a result, mean velocity, depth, bed shear stress and sediment transport rate tend to be greater here than in the more strongly curved left-hand channel. The loci of maximum flow velocity, depth and bed shear stress are near the centre of the channel upstream of the island, but then split and move towards the outer banks of both channels downstream. Variations in these loci depend on the flow stage. Topographically induced across-stream flows are generally stronger than the weak, curvature-induced secondary circulations. Water surface topography is controlled mainly by centrifugal accelerations and local changes in downstream flow velocity. The averaged water surface slope of the study reach varies very little with discharge, having values between 0·00075 and 0·00090. As bed shear stress generally varies in a similar way to mean velocity, friction coefficients vary little, normally being in the range 0·07–0·13. These values are similar to those in straight channels with sandy dune-covered beds. Bedload is moved mainly as dunes at all flow stages. Grain size is mainly medium sand with coarse sand moved in thalwegs adjacent to the cut banks, and with fine sand at the downstream end of the island. These patterns of flow velocity, depth, water surface topography, bed shear stress, bedload transport rate and mean grain size can be accurately predicted using theoretical models of flow, bed topography and sediment transport rate in single river bends, applied separately to the left and right channels. During high flow stages deposition occurs persistently near the downstream end of the island, and cut banks are eroded. Otherwise, erosion and deposition occurs only locally within the channel as discharge varies. Abandonment and filling of a strongly curved channel segment may occur by migration of an upstream bar into the channel entrance at a high flow stage.     

Effects of Wave–Current Interaction on Salt Intrusion During a Typhoon Event in a Highly Stratified Estuary

Wave–current interaction (WCI) is important in modulating hydrodynamics and water mixing in estuaries, and thereby the transport of water-borne materials. However, the effects of WCI on salt transport and salt intrusion in estuaries during storm events have been rarely examined. In the present study, we use a coupled atmosphere–ocean–wave–sediment transport (COAWST) modeling system to investigate the effects of WCI on salt intrusion in the highly stratified Modaomen Estuary during Typhoon Hagupit (2008). The model is validated by the measured wave, water elevation, and surface salinity data, and several diagnostic model experiments are conducted. WCI increases the storm surge by 0.8 m at the peak surge (25% of the total surge height). The wave-breaking-induced momentum flux and the Stokes drift increase the magnitude of the landward flow by 0.3 m s^?1 (30% of the total landward flow). In addition, the waves increase water mixing by 2–4 times compared with that without waves. Hence, WCI significantly increases the landward advective salt transport and decreases the steady shear transport. The net effect of the WCI is a significant increase of salt import and salt intrusion during the typhoon event. However, in the aftermath of the storm, the imported salt water is rapidly flushed out by the increased river discharge, and the estuary regains its stratification within one day.     

桩侧泥皮和桩底沉渣对钻孔桩承载力影响的数值模拟

运用有限元软件模拟分析了桩侧泥皮和桩底沉渣对钻孔桩承载力的影响。通过对不同桩底沉渣厚度和强度下单桩承载力模拟计算,研究了沉渣对钻孔桩承载力的影响规律,指出沉渣厚度的影响存在临界值,当沉渣厚度超过临界值300 mm时沉渣厚度对单桩承载力影响不是很明显,主要是沉渣强度的影响。引入桩侧泥皮摩阻力折减系数来考虑泥皮强度的影响,计算分析了泥皮高度和强度对钻孔桩承载力的影响,并指出泥皮高度是主要因素。     

Numerical simulation of turbidity current flow and sedimentation: I. Theory

A computer-based numerical model of turbidity current flow and sedimentation is presented that integrates geological observations with basic equations for fluid and sediment motion. The model quantifies those aspects of turbidity currents that make them different from better-understood fluvial processes, including water mixing across the upper flow boundary and the interactions between the suspended-sediment concentration and the flow dynamics and sedimentation. The model includes three numerical components: (1) a layer-averaged three-equation flow model for tracing downslope flow evolution using continuity and momentum equations, (2) a sedimentation/fluidization model for tracing sediment-size fractionation in sedimenting multicomponent suspensions and (3) a concentration-viscosity model for quantifying the changes in resistance of such suspensions toward fluid and sediment motion. The model traces the evolution of a model turbidity current in terms the layer-averaged flow velocity, flow thickness, sediment concentration distribution, and the rate of sedimentation and sediment size fractionation. It generates synthetic turbidites with downslope variations in thickness and grain-size structuring at each point along the flow path. This study represents an effort to evaluate quantitatively the effects of basin geometry, sediment supply and sediment properties on the mechanics of turbidity current flow and sedimentation and on the geometry and grain size characteristics of the resulting deposits.