The utilization of seismic interpretation to identify and describe the shallow subsurface structures in the southeastern Mediterranean Sea

The shallow subsurface structures of the offshore Nile Delta particularly in the southeastern Mediterranean were dealt through the interpretation of 40 two-dimensional seismic reflection lines. The interpretations of seismic reflection data indicated that the principle sedimentary processes affecting the study area include three main structural groups according to their origin and development. The first group of structures comprises of gravity-driven structures, which include slides, slumps, turbidities, and debris flow. Slides are present in three different forms on seismic sections: slide sheets, slides with scar, and wedges of slide materials. Slumps have many geometrical shapes: lenses, spoon-shaped slumps, and slumped blocks bound by growth faults. Debris flows are present as transparent unit (due to the dispersion of seismic waves at debris boundaries), whereas turbidities appear on the seismic profiles, which are formed of closely spaced parallel thin reflectors analogous to their thin stratified bedded layers. The second group of structures is syn-depositional structures, which include growth faults, and tilted and rotated fault blocks. Growth faults are listric in shape and usually dip seaward; displacements along the fault plane increase with depth. Some of these faults are incipient, and some are complicated and intersected by secondary antithetic faults. Most of the growth faults soles out basin wards and in the evaporites layer. Fault blocks are formed due to the Messinian evaporite movement vertically and horizontally due to its mobility as a consequence to the pressure resulted from the overloading of Pliocene sediment. The third group of structures comprises evaporite flow structures such as diapiric structures and graben collapse structures. The surface of the Messinian evaporites was folded during its flow as a consequence to the lateral compression acted on the mobile strata of the Messinian evaporites to form diapiric triangular structures and creates a stress zone faulting and fractures system. These conditions led to the formation of collapse structures or graben collapse structures.     

Evolution of karst in Messinian gypsum (Monferrato,Northern Italy)

In the Tertiary Basin of Piedmont (Northern Italy) a 100-150 m thick Messinian sedimentary succession crops out, composed of pre-evaporitic clays, gypsum beds and post-evaporitic lacustrine-marine fine-grained sediments. In the Monferrato area the thickness of the evaporite sequence is highly variable (0-140 m) due to an important erosion surface formed at the end of the evaporite cycle and carved in the gypsum beds. Epigenic caves probably formed during this short intra-Messinian phase of emersion. Cave sediments contain benthonic and planctonic foraminiferal associations ranging in age from Burdigalian to Upper Pliocene. These sediments have probably been deposited in recent times, although it cannot be completely ruled out that they accumulated in caves developed in Upper Messinian times. The formation of the most important caves of this area probably started at the end of the Messinian under epigenic conditions. Possibly, those inherited caves enlarged slowly during the Quaternary in an intrastratal and confined hypogene karst system.     

膏盐脱水在盐底辟发育过程中的作用分析-以东营凹陷为例

基于国内外已经取得的盐构造研究成果, 根据东营凹陷盐构造的发育特征, 指出流体在盐构造发育过程的重要作用。东营凹陷沙四段含有大量膏盐和含膏地层, 根据岩心、测井和地震等资料分析了东营凹陷盐构造特征。由于膏盐脱水作用会导致地层内部产生异常高压, 而异常高压可以作为动力迫使流体向上流动继而在上覆地层产生水压力裂缝, 流体上涌过程中可以带动盐类物质向上运动, 因此认为膏盐脱水对盐构造形成发育有重要作用。基于膏盐脱水和超压流体作用, 建立了东营凹陷沙四段盐底辟构造发展史模型, 分析了东营凹陷盐构造在流体作用下形成发育过程, 结果表明膏盐脱水在盐构造发育初期和中期具有重要作用。      

Elisional processes and salt tectonics: Communication 1. Catagenetic transformations in saliferous sequences

The work is dedicated to catagenetic transformations in sedimentary rocks with consideration of defluidization in clayey and evaporite sediments and analysis of salt tectonics and hydrogeology in the North Caspian depression.     

东营凹陷盐-泥层构成及其特征

含盐层序原始沉积的典型特征是盐类岩石与超压泥岩等构成互层的多韵律结构.盐和泥作为一个整体, 与纯粹的厚层的盐或泥相比, 其塑性变形能力和行为具有特殊性.针对这一特点, 提出了盐-泥层和盐-泥构造的概念.盐-泥层是指盐类岩石与超压泥岩呈互层的沉积层序, 具有一定的塑性或流动性.盐-泥构造是由盐-泥层的流动变形而形成的一类构造样式.盐-泥层的概念在含盐盆地中具有较广泛的适用性.      

柴达木盆地西部尕斯库勒盐湖280 ka以来沉积特征

以柴达木盆地西部尕斯库勒盐湖干盐滩6个钻孔岩芯为研究对象,从岩性特征、成盐期、沉积类型、沉积结构、沉积幅度等方面探讨尕斯库勒盐湖沉积特征。研究表明,自280 ka以来尕斯库勒盐湖经历相对湿润-干旱的气候波动和气候演化,在距今43.6 ka左右进入最干旱时期,可能属于柴达木盆地第二次成盐期;沉积结构层分异现象不明显;各成盐期平均沉积速率变化不大,平均沉积速率比新疆和内蒙古地区高; 该湖沉积中心在盐湖的西北部。     

Style and evolution of salt pillows and related structures in the northern part of the Northeast German Basin

The northern part of the Northeast German Basin contains a large number of Late Permian (Zechstein) salt pillows, whereas diapiric structures are almost completely absent. This lack of diapirs facilitated the study of early stages of salt movement in the basin. Salt pillows and related structures were investigated in terms of distribution, geometry and time of initiation of salt flow within the regional geological context. The primary Zechstein thickness in the study area was reconstructed to gain more insight into the relationship between the geometry of the salt layer and the style of the salt-related structures. In this study, no clear spatial relationship between the salt structures and basement faults has been found and the location of the salt structures in this area appears to be highly independent of the underlying structural grain. The overburden is affected by minor faulting. We propose that buckling of the overburden due to regional compression significantly contributed to the initiation of the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous salt structures in the basin. Reverse faulting of the Gardelegen and Haldensleben Faults is related to inversion tectonics and exerted a compression on the basin fill. During the deformation, the Late Permian salt layer acted as an efficient detachment and led to a marked decoupling of the Mesozoic overburden from the underlying pre-Zechstein rocks.     

Genesis of deformation structures affecting Plio-Pleistocene sediments in the western Portuguese mainland (West Iberia). Implication on the regional neotectonics

A careful analysis of the morphology, geologic setting, stratigraphic distribution and sedimentological context of deformation features in sediments can give valuable information for the interpretation of their genesis, namely if they are of sedimentary or tectonic origin. This approach was used for the study area, located in the western region of the Portuguese mainland (West Iberian margin), where significant neotectonic and seismic activities occur, contrasting with the stabler interior of Iberia. Notwithstanding the regional neotectonics (intended as upper Pliocene to Recent), part of the deformation features observed in the studied deposits (Pliocene to Pleistocene in age) may be attributed to other phenomena but seismic shaking and/or active faulting. Slump beds and flame structures in coarse sand deposits are probably related to sedimentary overloading in high supply delta plain setting. Part of the deformation observed in the sediments that overlie Jurassic marls and limestones was probably induced by karst sink. This process is plausible even in Plio-Pleistocene sediments that overlie low carbonate content basement rocks, such as marl dominated successions. Thus, the abundance of deformation features affecting the studied Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary cover may lead to an overestimation of the regional active tectonics. The neotectonic activity in this area is reconsidered from the interpretation of the triggering mechanisms responsible for the observed deformation.     

2-D velocity structure in Kerala-Konkan basin using traveltime inversion of seismic data

The existence of gas-hydrates in marine sediments increases the seismic velocity, whereas even a small amount of underlying free-gas reduces the velocity considerably. The change in velocities against the background (without gas-hydrates and free-gas) velocity can be used for identification and assessment of gas-hydrates. Traveltime inversion of identifiable reflections from large offset multi channel seismic (MCS) experiment is an effective method to derive the 2-D velocity structure in an area. We apply this method along a seismic line in the Kerala-Konkan (KK) offshore basin for delineating the gas-hydrates and free-gas bearing sediments across a bottom simulating reflector (BSR). The result reveals a four layer 2-D shallow velocity model with the topmost sedimentary layer having velocity of 1,680–1,740 m/s and thickness of 140–190 m. The velocity of the second layer of uniform thickness (110 m) varies from 1,890 to 1,950 m/s. The third layer, exhibiting higher velocity of 2,100–2,180 m/s, is interpreted as the gas-hydrates bearing sediment, the thickness of which is estimated as 100 to 150 m. The underlying sedimentary layer shows a reduction in seismic velocity between 1,620 to 1,720 m/s. This low-velocity layer with 160–200 m thickness may be due to the presence of free-gas below the gas-hydrates layer.     

Styles of salt tectonics in the Sab’atayn basin,onshore Yemen

A variety of distinct salt tectonic features are present in the Sab’atayn Basin of western Yemen. Based on the interpretation of regional 2D seismic reflection data and exploration wells in the central part of the basin, an Upper Jurassic evaporite formation produced numerous salt rollers, salt pillows, reactive, flip-flop, and falling diapirs. Due to regional extension, halokinetics began as soon as the early Cretaceous, within just a few million years after the deposition of the Tithonian Sab’atayn evaporite sequence, by formation of salt rollers. The salt locally formed salt pillows which evolved to reactive and active salt diapirs and diapiric salt walls as the result of renewed, but low-strain extension in the basin. Some of the diapiric walls further evolved into falling diapirs due to ongoing extension. As the result of a prominent extensional episode at the end of the Cretaceous, many of the diapiric walls in the basin are controlled by large normal faults on their updip flanks. As the post-Cretaceous sedimentary cover is largely missing in the study area, the assumed reactivation of salt structures during the Cenozoic remains poorly constrained. The interpreted changes in the style of salt tectonics in the Sab’atayn Basin offer a better understanding of the regional-scale tectonic development of the Arabian plate during the late Jurassic and Cretaceous.     

库车前陆褶皱-冲断带基底断裂对盐构造形成的影响

地震剖面解释和构造物理模拟实验表明,库车前陆褶皱—冲断带前古近系基底构造对上覆盐构造的形成演化有重要的控制作用。位于冲断带前缘的秋里塔格构造带西段前古近系基底表现为古隆起形态,并发育有丰富的基底断裂和盐构造。基底断裂大多表现为逆断裂,其走向与地表山系基本一致,倾向主要为NNW和SSE,具有较明显的分段特征。古近系库姆格列木组膏盐层塑性流动变形形成的盐构造主要有盐枕、盐推覆、盐焊接和鱼尾构造等。前古近系基底断裂通过影响古近系库姆格列木组膏盐层的塑性流动方式和平面展布特征,进而控制盐层及上覆层的构造变形过程,最终导致在盐层和上覆层形成了大量形态各异的盐相关构造。     

库车前陆褶皱冲断带前缘滑脱层内部变形特征

古近系库姆格列木组和新近系吉迪克组膏盐层构成了库车前陆褶皱冲断带的区域滑脱层。在褶皱冲断带前缘,膏盐层发生塑性流动,其内部形成多种构造样式。根据野外考察、地震剖面解释和钻井资料识别出的膏盐层内部构造变形样式主要包括盐枕、盐墙、盐推覆、鱼尾构造、盐焊接(断层焊接)、盐缩颈、透镜状增厚和盐垛等盐构造。盐构造在形成时间上具有一定的演化序列,库车前陆褶皱冲断带总体表现为由北向南迁移,前缘秋里塔格构造带则是从西往东迁移,盐推覆、盐焊接、盐枕等构造形成时间较早,盐墙形成较晚,东秋地区的盐构造形成时间整体较西段和中段晚,规模也较小。     

Study of a Neogene basin dynamics: The “Bizerte basin”, northeastern Tunisia: relevance to the global Messinian Salinity Crisis

The Messinian sediments of northeastern Tunisia were deposited under an active tectonic setting. They are organized in sequences indicating a transitional deposit from margin – littoral to lacustrine – continental facies. These series unconformably overlie the Serravallian–Tortonian silty clays packages, and are overlain by the transgressive Early Pliocene marl (Zanclean). The presence of evaporitic strata points out to the Messinian Salinity Crisis described in the peripheral basins of the western Mediterranean. The Messinian sedimentation was found to have been closely controlled by transtensive tectonics and differential subsidence at a large spatio-temporal scale. It is organized in sequences typical of a depositional environment controlled by eustatism, tectonic and maybe by climate changes. Despite the existence of some local specific sedimentological characteristics, our results corroborate previous findings that pointed out to the Messinian times as a singular period all around the Mediterranean Basin. Field and subsurface seismic profile data helped reconstructing either the sedimentary or tectonic unconformities existing between the studied Messinian series and older Neogene successions.     

Geodynamic evolution of the Salinas de Añana diapir in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin,Western Pyrenees

The Salinas de Añana diapir is located in the Basque-Cantabrian basin part of the great evaporite basin, along with the Gulf of Mexico and the Central European basin, when the fragmentation of Pangea started. The evolution of these basins can only be achieved by understanding the control of salt in the sedimentary and tectonic evolution of these basins.Sedimentation began with clastic Buntsandstein sediments and minor Muschelkalk limestones. Subsequent Keuper evaporites are the bottom of sedimentary cover constituted by Jurassic limestones and marls, a clastic Lower Cretaceous and an alternant limestone and marl Upper Cretaceous, whose deposition has been conditioned by salt tectonics. The emplacement of salt extends from the Aptian until now, favored by the duplication of the salt thickness associated with the thrust of Sierra Cantabria, so it is an excellent example to study changes in the regime of intrusion along the time. The geodynamic evolution of the Salinas de Añana diapir was determined through the interpretation of 45 reprocessed seismic lines, along with information from three wells. Migration of the salt in this diapir, conditioned by N120E and N30E pre-Alpine basement lineations, was determined using time isopach maps of the various rock layers. Vertical evolution of the diapir was determined through the reconstruction of a north-south section at various geologic times by flattening the respective seismic horizons. A minimum of salt flow into the diapir coincides with a minimum rate of sedimentation during the Turonian. Similarly, maximum flows of salt into the diapir occurred during the Coniacian and Lower Santonian and again from the end of the Lower Miocene to the present, coinciding with maximum rates of sedimentation during these times. In the Tertiary, probably during the Oligocene, the diapir was displaced to the south by the Sierra Cantabria thrust, maintaining the contact between the evaporites of diapir and the same evaporites of the lower block. Since the Oligocene, the salts of the lower block migrated towards and into the diapir, deforming the trace of the overthrust.     

2018年5月28日中国吉林松原M5.7级地震引起的液化构造*

2018年5月28日,吉林松原市宁江区毛都站镇牙木吐村发生M5.7级地震(45°16'12″N,124°42'35″E),震源深度13 km,震中位于郯庐断裂带西北侧的扶余/松原—肇东断裂带、第二松花江断裂带和扶余北断裂带交汇处。地震诱发震中距3 km范围内普遍的液化和地表裂缝,给当地居民带来严重灾害。可见液化构造以砂火山为主,其次为液化砂堆、液化砂脉和液化砂席等。液化砂火山又可分为有火山口型砂火山、无火山口型砂火山和无砂型(水)火山。地震液化伴生软沉积物变形构造有变形层理、负载构造和火焰构造、滑塌褶皱、碟状构造和包卷层理等。地震诱发液化砂火山形成过程包括液化层内超孔隙流体压力形成、上覆低渗透层破裂和水、砂喷出地表后砂涌3个阶段。液化和流化砂体在上涌过程中会注入低渗透黏土层形成各种形态的砂脉、砂席和多种类型的变形构造。垂向上地震液化结构可划分为底部松散可液化层、下部液化变形层、上部液化变形层和地表砂火山4层结构。液化层埋深2~5 m,液化层厚度2 m。松原M5.7级地震发震机制为NE-SW(35°~215°)方向挤压应力使断层活跃,推测扶余/松原—肇东断裂是主要的发震断层。松原地震液化构造研究为现代地震活动区和灾害易发区预测提供依据,为地震引发的现代软沉积物变形构造研究提供丰富的素材,兼具将今论古意义,为揭示本世纪以来郯庐断裂带北段进入了一个强断裂和地震活跃阶段提供了最新的实际资料。     

Structural evolution of the '41st parallel zone': Tyrrhenian Sea

The present study is based on the interpretation of more than 1300 km of 16 kJ sparker seismic profiles recorded in July 1990, during the Cruise T-41 of the Geological Institute of Urbino. The investigated area extends along the 41st parallel in the central Tyrrhenian Sea between the northern Sardinian margin to the west and the Latium–Campanian margin to the east. This zone, situated on continental crust, marks the boundary between the northern Tyrrhenian and the southern Tyrrhenian domains. A kinematic reconstruction is presented, based on the age-dating of the recognized structures (i.e. normal faults, reverse faults, anticline and flower structures). The evolution of the ‘41st parallel zone’ can be described in terms of polyphase tectonics characterized by different orientations of the stress field during time. The direction of the normal fault-trends, turned clockwise, striking NE–SW in the late Tortonian–Messinian, E–W in the early Pliocene, NNW–SSE in the late Pliocene and N–S during the Quaternary. The concurrence of compressional and strike-slip deformations suggests oblique shear motions across the 41st parallel. The occurrence of late Pliocene–Quaternary tectonic activity in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea, locally characterized by inversion tectonics, suggests active mechanisms (intraplate compression?) superimposed on the post-rift subsidence.     

塔里木盆地库车坳陷盐构造特征及形成演化

通过地表地质调查,确定了库车坳陷吐北、克拉苏、却勒和西秋四个不同地区盐构造的变形样式。结合地质和地震资料,建立了不同地区的地震地质结构剖面。应用平衡剖面研究方法,恢复了不同地区的盐构造形成演化历史,并对库车坳陷盐构造的形成机制进行了探讨。     

Evidence for Late Messinian seismites,Nijar Basin,south‐east Spain

The Feos Formation of the Nijar Basin comprises sediments deposited during the final stage of the Messinian salinity crisis when the Mediterranean was almost totally isolated. Levels of soft‐sediment deformation structures occur in both conglomeratic alluvial sediments deposited close to faults and the hyposaline Lago Mare facies, a laminated and thin‐bedded succession of whitish chalky marls and intercalated sands alternating with non‐marine coastal plain deposits. Deformation structures in the coarse clastics include funnel‐shaped depressions filled with conglomerate, liquefaction dykes terminating downwards in gravel pockets, soft‐sediment mixing bodies, chaotic intervals and flame structures. Evidence for soft‐sediment deformation in the fine‐grained Lago Mare facies comprises syndepositional faulting and fault‐grading, sandstone dykes, mixed layers, slumping and sliding of sandstone beds, convolute bedding, and pillar and flame structures. The soft‐sediment deformed intervals resemble those ascribed elsewhere to seismic shaking. Moreover, the study area provides the appropriate conditions for the preservation of deformation structures induced by seismicity; such as location in a tectonically active area, variable sediment input to produce heterolithic deposits and an absence of bioturbation. The vertical distribution of soft‐sediment deformation implies frequent seismic shocks, underlining the importance of seismicity in the Betic region during the Late Messinian when the Nijar Basin became separated from the Sorbas Basin to the north. The presence of liquefied gravel injections in the marginal facies indicates strong earthquakes (M ≥ 7). The identification of at least four separate fissured levels within a single Lago Mare interval suggests a recurrence interval for large magnitude earthquakes of the order of millennia, assuming that the cyclicity of the alternating Lago Mare and continental intervals was precession‐controlled. This suggestion is consistent with the present‐day seismic activity in SE Spain.     

塔里木盆地玉东-玛东构造带断层相关褶皱样式及演化

玉东-玛东构造带位于塔里木盆地,是在中寒武统膏盐层上滑脱的大规模褶皱冲断带,内部发育多种断层相关褶皱。目前对此构造带的研究,多关注了构造带的局部以及断裂变形。本文根据断层相关褶皱理论,利用地震资料,分析了玉东-玛东构造带内构造样式上的差异性,并通过二维构造正演模拟,建立了典型构造样式的运动学模式。认为研究区内玉东、玛东、塘北3个分区,具有不同的构造样式。玉东地区主要发育和铲式逆断层相关的断弯褶皱,玛东、塘北地区则发育断层突破的滑脱褶皱,突破断层在玛东地区为铲式断裂,而在塘北地区为坪-坡-坪式断裂。根据上奥陶统变形特征及其顶面不整合面之上的地层年代,认为玉东-玛东构造带的变形始于晚奥陶世,主要断裂及其相关褶皱形成于晚奥陶世末期。玉东地区在晚奥陶世早期,形成基底-盖层的低幅褶皱,在晚奥陶世末,形成铲式断裂及断弯褶皱;玛东和塘北地区变形发生在上奥陶统沉积之后,经历了滑脱褶皱和断层突破阶段。通过对比分析认为,断层相关褶皱样式的差异,与膏盐层岩性、厚度,上奥陶统岩性、厚度及构造转换作用有关。本研究有助于完善对塔里木盆地早古生代末期构造变形及演化的认识。     

Origin and deformation of intra-salt sulphate layers: an example from the Dutch Zechstein (Late Permian)

From salt mine galleries and well data it is known that thick rock salt layers can contain anhydrite and carbonate layers with thicknesses on the millimetre to tens of metre scale. The relatively thick Zechstein 3 anhydrite–carbonate layer in the northern Netherlands has been studied previously using 3-D seismic data. Observations from geophysical well logs in this study reveal the presence of thin sulphate layers on the sub-seismic scale imbedded in the Zechstein 2 (Z2) salt. Core samples, thin sections, seismic data and geochemical measurements were used to determine the mineralogy and origin of one of these Z2 sulphate layers. Bromine analyses show that they mark a freshening event in the Z2 salt, which can be correlated over large distances in the northern Netherlands. Their core-calibrated log signature indicates that the Z2 sulphate layers consist either of pure anhydrite or of anhydrite and polyhalite. The mineralogy and thickness of the sulphate layers are interpreted to vary between synsedimentary morphologic lows (thin anhydrite–polyhalite couplets) and highs (thicker anhydrite layers). Such a combination of core observations and well log analysis is a powerful tool to detect lateral trends in evaporite mineralogy and to reconstruct the environmental setting of their formation. Salt internal geometries can further be used to distinguish between different deformation mechanisms. In our study area, the distribution of sulphate layers within the Z2 salt indicates that subjacent salt dissolution was not the dominant process leading to salt-related deformation.