Secular crustal deformation and interplate coupling of the Japanese Islands as deduced from continuous GPS array, 1996–2001

Data from the nation-wide GPS continuous tracking network that has been operated by the Geographical Survey Institute of Japan since April 1996 were used to study crustal deformation in the Japanese Islands. We first extracted site coordinate from daily SINEX files for the period from April 1, 1996 to February 24, 2001. Since raw time series of station coordinates include coseismic and postseismic displacements as well as seasonal variation, we model each time series as a combination of linear and trigonometric functions and jumps for episodic events. Estimated velocities were converted into a kinematic reference frame [Heki, K., 1996. Horizontal and vertical crustal movements from three-dimensional very long baseline interferometry kinematic reference frame: implication for reversal timescale revision. J. Geophys. Res., 101: 3187–3198.] to discuss the crustal deformation relative to the stable interior of the Eurasian plate. A Least-Squares Prediction technique has been used to segregate the signal and noise in horizontal as well as vertical velocities. Estimated horizontal signals (horizontal displacement rates) were then differentiated in space to calculate principal components of strain. Dilatations, maximum shear strains, and principal axes of strain clearly portray tectonic environments of the Japanese Islands. On the other hand, the interseismic vertical deformation field of the Japanese islands is derived for the same GPS data interval. The GPS vertical velocities are combined with 31 year tide gage records to estimate absolute vertical velocity. The results of vertical deformation show that (1) the existence of clear uplift of about 6 mm/yr in Shikoku and Kii Peninsula, whereas pattern of subsidence is observed in the coast of Kyushu district. This might reflect strong coupling between the Philippine Sea plate and overriding plate at the Nankai Trough and weak coupling off Kyushu, (2) no clear vertical deformation pattern exists along the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan. This might be due to the long distance between the plate boundary (Japan trench) and overriding plate where GPS sites are located, (3) significant uplift is observed in the southwestern part of Hokkaido and in northeastern Tohoku along the Japan Sea coast. This is possibly due to the viscoelastic rebound of the 1983 Japan Sea (M_w 7.7) and the 1993 Hokkaido–Nansei–Oki (M_w 7.8) earthquakes and/or associated with distributed compression of incipient subduction there. We then estimate the elastic deformation of the Japanese Islands caused by interseismic loading of the Pacific and Philippine Sea subduction plates. The elastic models account for most of the observed horizontal velocity field if the subduction movement of the Philippine Sea Plate is 100% locked and if that of the Pacific Plate is 70% locked. However, the best fit for vertical velocity ranges from 80% to 100% coupling factor in southwestern Japan and only 50% in northeastern Japan. Since horizontal data does not permit the separation of rigid plate motion and interplate coupling because horizontal velocities include both contributions, we used the vertical velocities to discriminate between them. So, we can say there is strong interplate coupling (80%–100%) over the Nankaido subduction zone, whereas it is about 50% only over the Kurile–Japan trench.     

The tectonic regime along the Andes: Present‐day and Mesozoic regimes

The analyses of the main parameters controlling the present Chile‐type and Marianas‐type tectonic settings developed along the eastern Pacific region show four different tectonic regimes: (1) a nearly neutral regime in the Oregon subduction zone; (2) major extensional regimes as the Nicaragua subduction zone developed in continental crust; (3) a Marianas setting in the Sandwich subduction zone with ocean floored back‐arc basin with a unique west‐dipping subduction zone and (4) the classic and dominant Chile‐type under compression. The magmatic, structural and sedimentary behaviours of these four settings are discussed to understand the past tectonic regimes in the Mesozoic Andes based on their present geological and tectonic characteristics. The evaluation of the different parameters that governed the past and present tectonic regimes indicates that absolute motion of the upper plate relative to the hotspot frame and the consequent trench roll‐back velocity are the first order parameters that control the deformation. Locally, the influences of the trench fill, linked to the dominant climate in the forearc, and the age of the subducted oceanic crust, have secondary roles. Ridge collisions of seismic and seismic oceanic ridges as well as fracture zone collisions have also a local outcome, and may produce an increase in coupling that reinforces compressional deformation. Local strain variations in the past and present Andes are not related with changes in the relative convergence rate, which is less important than the absolute motion relative to the Pacific hotspot frame, or changes in the thermal state of the upper plate. Changes in the slab dip, mainly those linked to steepening subduction zones, produce significant variations in the thermal state, that are important to generate extreme deformation in the foreland. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Unstable forearc stress in the eastern Nankai subduction zone for the last 2 million years

Transpressional tectonics characterizes the SW Japan arc. However, we will show in this article that offshore seismic profiles and onshore mesoscale faults indicate that the eastern part of the forearc was subject to transtensional tectonics since ca. 2.0 Ma. Offshore normal faults imaged on the profiles run parallel to the Nankai Trough, and started activity at 1.0 Ma, but transtensional tectonics commenced the onshore area earlier. In order to understand the stress history in the forearc region, we collected fault-slip data from onshore mesoscale faults in Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary rocks in the Kakegawa area at the northeastern extension of the offshore normal faults. Most of the mesoscale faults are oblique-normal, indicating that the area was subject to transtensional tectonics. The faults suggest that the compressional tectonic regime was followed by the transtensional one at 2.0 Ma, in agreement with regional tectonostratigraphic data, which indicate that folding ceased at that time. Present compressional stress followed the transtensional tectonic regime sometime in the late Pleistocene. Transtensional or extensional tectonic zone shifted from the Kakegawa area to the offshore region.These observations indicate that the state of stress just behind the accretionary prism of the eastern Nankai subduction zone has been unstable in the last 2 million years, suggesting that the forearc wedge has been at critical state in that gravitational force and basal shear traction on the wedge have been balanced, but the forearc tectonics has been susceptible to small perturbations. Possible factors compatible with the observed stress history include the change of subduction direction of the plate at 1.0 Ma, and the rapid uplift of Central Japan thereafter.     

High heat flow anomalies on an old oceanic plate observed seaward of the Japan Trench

Thirty-three new measurements on the seaward slope and outer rise of the Japan Trench along a parallel of 38°45′N revealed the existence of high heat flow anomalies on the subducting Pacific plate, where the seafloor age is about 135 m.y.. The most prominent anomaly with the highest value of 114 mW/m² is associated with a small mound on the outer rise, which was reported to be a kind of mud volcano. On the seaward slope of the trench, heat flow is variable: high (70–90 mW/m²) at some locations and normal for the seafloor age (about 50 mW/m²) at others. The spatial variation of heat flow may be related to development of normal faults and horst/graben structures due to bending of the Pacific plate before subduction, with fluid flow along the fault zones enhancing the vertical heat transfer. Possible heat sources of the high heat flow anomalies are intra-plate volcanism in the last several million years like that discovered recently on the Pacific plate east of the Japan Trench.     

Continuous GPS and broad-scale deformation across the Rhine Graben and the Alps

In order to study the ongoing tectonic deformation in the Rhine Graben area, we reconstruct the local crustal velocity and the strain rate field from GPS array solutions. Following the aim of this work, we compile the velocities of permanent GPS stations belonging to various networks (EUREF, AGNES, REGAL and RGP) in central western Europe. Moreover, the strain rate field is displayed in terms of principal axes and values, while the normal and the shear components of the strain tensor are calculated perpendicular and parallel to the strike of major faults. The results are compared with the fault plane solutions of earthquakes, which have occurred in this area. A broad-scale kinematic deformation model across the Rhine Graben is provided on the basis of tectonics and velocity results of the GPS permanent stations. The area of study is divided into four rigid blocks, between which there might be relative motions. The velocity and the strain rate fields are reconstructed along their borders, by estimating a uniform rotation for each block. The tectonic behaviour is well represented by the four-block model in the Rhine Graben area, while a more detailed model will be needed for a better reconstruction of the strain field in the Alpine region.

西南“三江”造山带大地构造相

西南“三江”造山带由多条缝合带及其间多个大小不等的中间陆块构成,其大地构造属性与划分方案历来受地学界关注与争论。本文以大地构造相理论为切入点,将西南“三江”造山带划分出11个一级及其若干二级大地构造相,包括俯冲、消减杂岩、仰冲等一级大地构造相以及与其相伴的后造山及走滑大地构造相。俯冲大地构造相类包括块体变质相、前陆褶冲相、前陆盆地相;消减杂岩大地构造相包括洋壳残片相、陆壳残片相、增生变质杂岩相、活化基底相、侵入岩相、上叠磨拉石相;仰冲板块大地构造相包括弧前盆地相、岛弧相、弧后及弧间盆地相。特提斯洋向北消减,使泛华夏大陆群各块体先拼接,其后弧后扩张、闭合、造山,从而形成了“三江”造山带“多缝合带”、“多陆体”特征。     

Hydrodynamic response of subduction zones to seismic activity: A case study for the Costa Rica margin

Thermal anomalies in tectonically active areas are often attributed to sub-seafloor fluid circulation and faulting mechanisms, particularly in subduction zones where the largest thrust earthquakes occur. Postseismic fluid flow is enabled by the poroelastic response of the fault system to the earthquake's strain field, as well as by the rupturing of permeability barriers in the vicinity of the fault zone. We investigated the relative importance of these mechanisms on postseismic pore-pressure diffusion and advective heat transport in the subduction zone setting. A two-dimensional numerical fluid flow and heat transport model was developed for the Costa Rica subduction zone offshore of the Nicoya Peninsula. The flow and transport model was coupled with an earthquake strain model to quantify the effects of coseismic strain and permeability enhancement on fluid pressures and temperatures within the Costa Rica margin. Coseismic changes in pore pressure and postseismic pore-pressure diffusion were found to be sensitive to the compressibility of the porous medium, and patterns of pore-pressure recovery were more complex than that predicted by theoretical faulting models. Coseismic contraction and extension of the crust produced high fluid pressures close to the fault, while the inflow of fluid from depth increased fluid pressures several years following the simulated fault slip. Crustal deformation alone was not observed to perturb the temperature field. Laterally extensive permeability increases of two orders of magnitude along the décollement were required to produce small changes in heat flow. Local permeability changes in the upper slope region of least five orders of magnitude were necessary to noticeably affect heat flow. The results of the numerical simulations may help to refine conceptual faulting models and provide guidance for locating long-term hydrologic monitoring sites at Costa Rica and other subduction zones.     

从GPS水平矢量场对中国及全球地壳运动的新认识

利用中国GPS矢量场和IERS公布的全球矢量场,对中国及全球地壳水平运动的状态进行了从全球到局部不同空间尺度的构造运动的描述和理解,其要点如下：①GPS矢量场定量地显示了中蒙构造区是全球大陆内变动最强的地区;②中蒙构造区（或中蒙次板块）内部可分出三级各具特色的构造区块、条块和地块;③中蒙西部区块呈大"",3条边缘带都是地壳厚度陡变带,是结构性地震带,控制了全球大陆内 2／3以上的 8级地震;④中蒙东部构造区块是挤压型和伸展型大陆边缘最典型地区,GPS矢量场展现了现今向东的伸展蠕散运动;⑤中国西部2001年在昆仑山发生的 8．1级地震与西部从GPS矢量场算得的视应变场中高应变带相关;⑥全球GPS矢量场揭示 N／S半球之间存在明显的运动不协调带,该带（B带）直接表现为13条左列的走滑兼挤压断裂带,该带控制的强震活动与环太平洋俯冲带（A带）控制的地震自1897年以来交替活动已有七幕。讨论提出：①全球 4个构造系（环太平洋构造系、洋脊构造系、北半球大陆高原构造系和环赤道构造系）是否与地球的 N／S半球、0～180°半球的双重非对称有关？②全球GPS矢量场所描述的板块运动可否作为约束推算地幔三维运动的表层条件？     

Comment on “The potential influence of subduction zone polarity on overriding plate deformation,trench migration and slab dip angle” by W.P. Schellart

The Schellart's [Schellart, W.P., 2007, The potential influence of subduction zone polarity on overriding plate deformation, trench migration and slab dip angle. Tectonophysics, 445, 363–372.] paper uses slab dip and upper plate extension for testing the westward drift. His analysis and discussion are misleading for the study of the net rotation of the lithosphere since the first 125 km of subduction zones are sensitive also to other parameters such upper plate thickness, geometry and obliquity of the subduction zone with respect to the convergence direction. The deeper (> 125 km) part cannot easily be compared as well because E- or NE-directed subduction zones have seismic gaps between 270–630 km. Moreover the velocity of subduction hinge cannot be precisely estimated and it does not equal to backarc spreading due to accretionary prism growth and asthenospheric intrusion at the subduction hinge. It is shown here that hinge migration in the upper plate or lower plate reference frames supports a general global polarization of the lithosphere in agreement with the westward drift of the lithosphere. The W-directed subduction zones appear controlled by the slab–mantle interaction with slab retreat imposed by the eastward mantle flow. The opposite E-NE-directed subduction zones seem rather mainly controlled by the convergence rate, plus density, thickness and viscosity of the upper and lower plates. Finally, the geological and geophysical asymmetries recorded along subduction and rift zones as a function of their polarity with respect to the tectonic mainstream are not questioned in the Schellart's paper, but they rather represent the basic evidence for the westward drift of the lithosphere.     

Quantification of strain rate in the Western Alps using geodesy: comparisons with seismotectonics

The contrasted seismotectonic regime of the Western Alps is characterized by radial extension in the high chain, combined with local compressive areas at the foothill of the belt, and everywhere occurrence of transcurrent tectonics. Here, we compare this seismotectonic regime to a large-scale compilation of GPS measurements in the Western Alpine realm. Our analysis is based on the raw GPS database, which give the measured velocity field with respect to the so called “stable Europe”, and an interpolated velocity field, in order to smooth the database on a more regular mesh. Both strain rate and rotational components of the deformation are investigated. The strain rate field shows patch-like structure, with extensional areas located in the core and to the North of the belt and compressional areas located in its periphery. Although the GPS deformation fields (both raw and interpolated) are more spatially variable than the seismotectonic field, a good qualitative correlation is established with the seismotectonic regionalization of the deformation. The rotation rate fields (both raw and interpolated) present counterclockwise rotations in the innermost part of the belt and a surprising continuous zone of clockwise rotations following the arc-shape geometry of the Western Alps along their external border. We interpret this new result in term of a counterclockwise rotation of the Apulia plate with respect to the stable Europe. This tectonic scheme may induce clockwise rotations of crustal block along the large strike-slip fault system, which runs in the outer part of the belt, from the Rhône-Simplon fault to the Belledonne fault and Southeastward, to the High-Durance and Argentera fault.     

Plate subduction,and generation of earthquakes and magmas in Japan as inferred from seismic observations: An overview

A dense nationwide seismic network recently constructed in Japan has been yielding large volumes of high-quality data that have made it possible to investigate the seismic structure in the Japanese subduction zone with unprecedented resolution. In this article, recent studies on the subduction of the Philippine Sea and Pacific plates beneath the Japanese Islands and the mechanism of earthquake and magma generation associated with plate subduction are reviewed. Seismic tomographic studies have shown that the Philippine Sea plate subducting beneath southwest Japan is continuous throughout the entire region, from Kanto to Kyushu, without disruption or splitting even beneath the Izu Peninsula as suggested in the past. The contact of the Philippine Sea plate with the Pacific plate subducting below has been found to cause anomalously deep interplate and intraslab earthquake activity in Kanto. Detailed waveform inversion studies have revealed that the asperity model is applicable to interplate earthquakes. Analyses of dense seismic and GPS network data have confirmed the existence of episodic slow slip accompanied in many instances by low-frequency tremors/earthquakes on the plate interface, which are inferred to play an important role in stress loading at asperities. High-resolution studies of the spatial variation of intraslab seismicity and the seismic velocity structure of the slab crust strongly support the dehydration embrittlement hypothesis for the generation of intraslab earthquakes. Seismic tomography studies have shown that water released by dehydration of the slab and secondary convection in the mantle wedge, mechanically induced by slab subduction, are responsible for magma generation in the Japanese islands. Water of slab origin is also inferred to be responsible for large anelastic local deformation of the arc crust leading to inland crustal earthquakes that return the arc crust to a state of spatially uniform deformation.     

Gravity field,surface topography,and volcanic complexes of Kamchatka and its junction with the Aleutian arc

The paper deals with interpretation of global digital maps of gravity anomalies and surface topography for the northwestern Pacific and Kamchatka regions. A transformation procedure is suggested to reveal subtle features of surface topography against high elevation contrasts. Gravity data (free-air and Bouguer anomalies) have important implications for the evolution of the circum-Pacific region and the problems of volcanism and geodynamics in subduction zones. The patterns of gravity anomalies and transformed topography interpreted jointly with onshore and offshore geological data can make a basis for tectonic paleoreconstructions of upper crust and lithospheric mantle structures.     

Shallow Structure of the Crust in the Sulu-Dabie Region,China and its Seismotectonic Implication

The P-wave velocity structure in the shallow crust is investigated in and around the Sulu-Dabie region by using seismic reflection data for deep soundings in 48 survey profiles and from rock velocity determinations. The observed velocity distributions show obvious heterogeneities in this region. The low velocity anomalies are observed mainly in the west of the Dabie region and the East Sea regions. The high velocity anomalies emerge in the shallow crust of the Sulu and Dabie orogeny. These high-velocity anomalies can be attributed to the ultra-high pressure metamorphosed (UHPM) rock formed by exhumation motion of mantle materials during the orogeny. The high-velocity anomalies in the different shallow layers beneath the Sulu region are located to the northeast of the Tan-Lu fault. The high-velocity anomalies beneath the Dabie region are located southwest of the Tan-Lu fault. Such a distribution pattern of velocity anomaly zones may reveal historical motion of a left-lateral strike-slip for the Tan-Lu fault, which differs from the result of a right-lateral strike-slip motion regime known from modern seismology, indicating a more complex tectonic motion along the Tan-Lu fault.     

The influence of isostatic equilibrium on the formation of the sources of tsunamigenic earthquakes

The hypothesis is proposed that tsunamigenic earthquakes in subduction zones, where the thrust geodynamic setting is dominant, are caused by the development of subvertical Riedel megashears (R’ megashears), which are not typical of shear settings. The gravity and GPS monitoring data for the 2011 Tohoku earthquake indicate isostasy, which was manifested in a tendency towards the smoothing of the relief contrasts between the island arc and deep trench. It is this isostatic factor that produces the sources of tsunamigenic earthquakes.     

Crustal velocity and Vp/Vs structures beneath central Anatolia from local seismic tomography

We applied a seismic tomography technique to arrival time data generated by local crustal earthquakes in central Anatolia in order to study the three-dimensional velocity and Vp/Vs structures and their relation with the complex tectonic processes and seismic activity occurring in the study region. The relatively equal and large number of both P- and S-wave arrival times comprising a total of 51,650 arrivals and the relatively uniform distribution of the recording stations imply that the obtained velocity anomalies are reliable features down to a depth of 40 km. This is also evident from the results of the checkerboard resolution test, hit count, and the ray-path coverage. The inversion results indicate the existence of strong lateral heterogeneities in the crust and uppermost mantle beneath central Anatolia. Prominent low-velocity anomalies are clearly imaged at all layers especially beneath existing volcanoes and the active fault segments. Higher-than-average Vp/Vs ratios are widely distributed, indicating the possible existence of over-pressurized fluids that may be responsible for the triggering of the large crustal earthquakes along the north and east Anatolian fault zones. We noticed that the seismic activity occurs mainly at the low-velocity areas and to a lesser extent in some high-velocity zones, perhaps because of the complex tectonics and geological structures. These observations imply that all the zones with velocity anomalies—either low or high—are potential sites for strain energy accumulation and subsequent release. The obtained velocity and Vp/Vs models are consistent with previous geophysical measurements conducted beneath central Anatolia and give much deeper understanding of the current seismotectonic processes occurring in the region.     

Kinematic analysis of sinistral cataclastic shear zones along the northern margin of the Mino Belt, central Japan

In this paper, cataclastic shear zones along the northern margin of the Mino Belt, central Japan are described, and the significance of the shearing in the tectonic evolution of SW Japan is examined. The Mino Belt in SW Japan is composed of accretionary complexes of Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age. Field investigation revealed that remarkable cataclastic shear zones trending east to northeast run along the northern margin of the Mino Belt. Closely spaced cleavage is developed in these shear zones. Lineation on the cleavage plunges at shallow to moderate angles. Deformation structures (e.g. composite planar fabric and asymmetric structure of clasts) in the sheared rocks clearly indicate a sinistral sense of shear. The shearing ceased by latest Cretaceous time, because the sheared rocks are overlain by unsheared Upper Cretaceous volcanic rocks. The sinistral shearing may be closely related to Cretaceous sinistral movement along the eastern margin of Asia. Sinistral shearing along the northern margin of the Mino Belt can be considered as a key for re-examining the tectonic development of SW Japan.     

GPS观测的活动断裂滑动速率及其对现今大陆动力作用的制约

活动断裂的滑动速率是晚第四纪构造变形的定量描述 ,是制约和研究现今大陆动力过程的重要基础数据。地震地质学研究给出主要活动断裂的长期和平均运动水平 ,横跨断裂的GPS观测能够提供断裂的现今滑动速率。文中利用重大科学工程“中国地壳运动观测网络”的 10 0 0多个GPS观测站的复测数据 ,计算中国大陆主要活动断裂的现今滑动速率。发现主要活动断裂的GPS滑动速率与晚第四纪滑动速率在运动方式和运动量上是大体一致的。从GPS观测到的断层滑动速率来看 ,中国大陆的大多数活动断裂的速率都在 10mm/a之下 ,而没有类似于板块边界的大于 2 0 30mm/a的滑动速率。这种现象意味着整个中国大陆的构造变形可能是分布式的 ,而不是仅仅集中在少数几条大型活动构造带上 ,沿主要活动断裂的刚性块体滑移可能不是构造变形的主要方式。现今构造变形的分块运动图像可能只是脆性上地壳的变形方式 ,中下地壳和上地幔的运动则以连续变形为特征 ,从下部驱动脆性上地壳的变形和运动 ,使得上部地壳的变形既表现出分块特征 ,又发生块内的变形。“连续变形”理论模型能够更好地描述大陆内部的构造变形。     

角闪石高温高压实验研究进展及其地球物理意义

高温高压实验作为地球科学研究的重要方向之一,通过模拟地球深部的温度和压力条件,了解地球深部物质的物理化学性质、地球内部结构和动力学演化。角闪石属于双链硅酸盐矿物,为地幔岩石圈的重要组成,广泛分布在海洋地壳、俯冲板块、变质岩和火成岩中。作为俯冲带的重要含水矿物,角闪石的广泛分布和高温高压下的脱水对于理解俯冲带水含量以及水迁移具有重要作用,同时在俯冲带的地震活动、高电导率异常、地震波速异常和岩浆活动中扮演重要角色。在过去的近百年时间里,国内外学者对角闪石高温高压物理化学性质进行了大量的研究。角闪石具有非常复杂的元素组成和结构特征,由此也导致了不同角闪石物理化学性质存在显著不同,包括脱水与脱羟基反应中元素迁移的差异、角闪石形成与分解过程中碱性元素(K+Na)和H2O含量对热稳定的影响、不同空间群结构下的高压结构相变、原位条件下不同结晶方向的电导率异常、不同结晶学优选方位(CPO)下的波速异常等。已有的研究对于角闪石的物理化学性质以及其在俯冲带中发挥的作用有了比较清楚的认识,但仍然有许多问题需要进一步研究,如角闪石的高压脱水动力学、热物性和变形机制等。     

Spatiotemporal variations of Jurassic–Cretaceous magmatism in eastern Asia (Tan‐Lu Fault to SW Japan): evidence for flat‐slab subduction and slab rollback

Here, we examine spatiotemporal variations of Jurassic–Cretaceous magmatism along a c. 1000‐km transect across eastern Asia, including SW Japan, the Korean, Jiaodong and Liaodong peninsulas, and eastern Jilin Province. Integration of tectonic regime data with age data from igneous rocks in eastern Asia (from the Tan‐Lu Fault to SW Japan) suggests a shallowing of the subduction angle and subsequent flat‐slab subduction during the Jurassic, and slab rollback during the Early Cretaceous. The combination of a subducting plateau and root‐enhanced suction provides the best explanation for the flat‐slab subduction. In the final stage (Albian) of slab rollback, the geotectonic setting changed from subduction–accretion to a continental arc in the area close to the ancient trench (i.e. the Inner Zone of SW Japan).     

Dynamic interaction of seismic activity along rising and sinking edges of plate boundaries

Cumulative and differential cumulative seismic strain release of shallow earthquakes during 1964 through 1972 show significant time-delayed correlation for many of the rises and/or sinks of tectonic plate boundaries for the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. For the Pacific, time delays are almost exclusively from areas of higher to areas of lower strain release, and could imply viscous stress relaxation along or near the lithosphere—asthenosphere boundary. Seismically determined slip rates for many of the subduction zones during 1964–1972 are lower than those of the preceding part of the century by a factor of 5. The significant correlation between many rises and sinks suggests worldwide interaction and coupling of plate motion.