The tyranny of the past: why local histories matter in the South African fisheries

Co-management is widely advocated internationally as the solution to the purported failure of state management in the fisheries and has won adherents in South Africa. The theory, however, rests on a set of unexamined modernist assumptions, which raise serious doubts about its likely successful import to South Africa. These problems are demonstrated through a review of indigenous co-management in the South African inshore fisheries c.1905–1939. This suggests that co-management in South Africa was a historical compromise between a weak, pre-scientific state and the patrons of client fishing communities menaced by industrialisation whereby control was granted over marine resources within defined sea territories in exchange for governance at the coastal margins. The factors sustaining indigenous co-management have long since passed and the alignment of forces in the current conjuncture is hostile to its re-imposition from outside.     

Step zero for fisheries co-management: What precedes implementation

In this paper we argue that what precedes the implementation of co-management is as important as what happens later in the process. To a selected group of fisheries and coastal co-management practitioners in various parts of the world, we posed questions about how the idea was conceived, who participated in the initial discussion, and the preparation required before implementation. Responses received suggest a wide range of possible beginnings. In some cases (e.g., Barbados, Mozambique, and Zambia/Lake Kariba), the government spearheaded the process, while in others (e.g., Brazil and Malawi), the process was initiated by local entrepreneurs. In other instances, the initial discussion took place between communities and researchers (e.g., South Africa) or environmental groups (e.g., the Philippines). Learning about the conditions and actions taken prior to co-management implementation can assist us in evaluating the likelihood of success. In addition, by taking the time to understand situations in a local context, researchers can avoid premature and hasty attempts to embrace co-management schemes.     

An evaluation of the Marine Living Resources Act and supporting legal instruments as a framework for implementation of an ecosystem approach to fisheries in South Africa

The Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA), which was enacted in 1998, is the primary legislation addressing South Africa's marine fisheries. In June 2012, another important instrument, the Policy for the Small Scale Fisheries Sector (SSFP) in South Africa, was adopted to rectify the exclusion of many small-scale fishers from access to resources, that had resulted from weaknesses in the MLRA. This paper assesses the MLRA, aspects of the SSFP and selected other subsidiary policies and regulations in relation to current best-practices, especially the extent to which they support an ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF). The study concludes that there are some serious gaps and shortcomings in the MLRA that should be addressed. These include, among others, the need to: (i) revise the MLRA so as to incorporate requirements for open and transparent management and governance; (ii) entrench the principles of co-management, emphasised in the SSFP, for all fisheries; and (iii) include a legal requirement for detailed management plans for all fisheries. Despite these shortcomings, there has been considerable progress in implementation of EAF, at least in the country's bigger fisheries. However, this should not be seen as a justification for avoiding or delaying a revision of the MLRA to bring it into line with modern best-practices as encompassed by EAF.     

Assessment of resource availability and suitability for subsistence fishers in South Africa,with a review of resource management procedures

The availability of resources and their suitability for subsistence and small-scale commercial fishers in South Africa were assessed and appropriate options for the management of resources recommended. Assessment of current resource utilization and recommendations for future subsistence and/or small-scale commercial use were based on information gathered during a nationwide survey of 144 subsistence fishing communities in South Africa and a review of relevant published and unpublished literature. Current patterns of resource use in three regions of the coast (West, South and East coasts) revealed that most true subsistence fisheries occur in the eastern half of the country. These fisheries are primarily focused on invertebrate species found on intertidal rocky shores and sandy beaches, or in estuaries. Fish are harvested by rod or handline, netting or traditional fishing methods (fishtraps, spearing, baited baskets). No "new" or previously underutilized resources were identified as suitable for subsistence fishing in any of the three regions. The potential for several new small-scale commercial fisheries was identified, but the need to retain certain resources for subsistence fisheries (rather than converting them to small-scale commercial fisheries) was evident in certain areas. Resources with high commercial value were not considered suitable for subsistence fishing, but rather for the introduction of small-scale commercial fisheries. The overall management strategy for the subsistence sector, which is currently in the process of being developed, must ensure sufficient flexibility to be able to take into account regional and site-specific requirements. It will also need to develop co-management structures, protect traditional fishing practices, avoid user conflict and provide for no-take areas, all within the framework of sustainable resource utilization.     

Towards a functional typology of small-scale fisheries co-management informed by stakeholder perceptions: A coral reef case study

Co-management has gained significant traction in small-scale fisheries as part of the solution for resolving economic inefficiency, unsustainable harvesting and unequal distribution of benefits derived from fisheries, generating some promising results. Most studies, however, present co-management as the sharing of power between resource users and centralised government, and do not explicitly consider the role of a more diverse set of stakeholders, or what roles different stakeholder types are best positioned to perform. This paper contributes to our understanding of stakeholder diversity by determining, through surveys with 133 fishery stakeholders in Solomon Islands, which stakeholder types are perceived as most suited to particular co-management roles, and which stakeholder types should be collaborating to increase fishery stocks. The effect of respondent socio-demographics, on perceived roles, is tested to explore the value of the role typology. Ten dominant roles were identified across seven stakeholder types, including collaboration and raising awareness, which were perceived to be dominantly the domain of auxiliary stakeholders that are not explicitly recognised in the co-management literature, including NGOs and church leaders. Of the socio-demographic variables tested, only site explained some of the variation in stakeholder roles perceived by respondents. The primary value of the typology lies in its potential to be used as a basis for dialogue on strengths and weaknesses of allocated roles for increasing fish stocks in existing co-management systems.     

Can co-management emerge spontaneously? Collaborative management in Sri Lankan shrimp aquaculture

Shrimp aquaculture in northwestern Sri Lanka shows co-management like features. To understand the reasons behind co-management and to identify the mechanisms by which co-management is carried out, the paper examines shrimp aquaculture operations in three coastal communities using a case study approach. Water from an interconnected lagoon system is the key input for shrimp ponds, but it is also the potential source of shrimp disease outbreaks that threaten all shrimp farms. Farmers try to prevent the spread of disease by co-operating to adjust the timing of water intake and wastewater release. This is done through a zonal crop calendar system which is developed and implemented by a vertically integrated institutional structure with three levels: sub-zonal/community, zonal, and national. Partnerships, overall sharing of power and authority, and learning-by-doing are key features of this collaborative management system. The case shows that adaptive co-management can develop through collaborative problem-solving over time, even in the absence of legal arrangements.     

Conditions affecting the success of fisheries co-management: lessons from Asia

The purpose of this paper is to present results from the first five-year phase of a large fisheries co-management research project implemented by the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) and the Institute of Fisheries Management (IFM), with national partners in Asia and Africa. More specifically, the paper will present results of conditions which affect the success of co-management as identified through the project's research activities in Asia. The 18 conditions identified as being of high importance for success are grouped into three categories: supra-community level, community level, and individual and household level.     

Fish stocks and their management: The changing face of fisheries in South Africa

Transformation of South African marine fisheries over the past 10 years has had to balance economic stability, equity and sustainability. This is being done in three ways. First, access rights have been redistributed, increasing the number of rights holders 20-fold and the participation of historically disadvantaged individuals from 0.75% to 62%. Second, established companies have undergone internal transformation. Third, subsistence fishers have formally been recognised. New focuses include co-management, ecosystem-based management and marine protected areas. Further necessary steps include parity in salaries, attention to artisanal fishers, embracement of co-management, expansion of subsistence management and effective enforcement. Most stocks are healthy or recovering but exceptions, such as abalone, warn how quickly stocks can be decimated if co-operation is not achieved.     

Toward institutions for community-based management of inshore marine resources in the Western Indian Ocean

This paper examines the frameworks being developed to co-manage coral reefs in Kenya and Madagascar. The historical and social context, flexibility of rule-making, monitoring and enforcement, and how community-based organizations are nested within other organizations is described. A comparison of the degree to which these two frameworks contain 10 key design principles thought to be important for successful commons institutions is presented. Finally, recommendations are made for improving co-management in these countries. A principal finding is that both co-management frameworks were developed for other systems (terrestrial and lakes), which creates misfits for how marine systems can be managed.     

Co-management and adaptive co-management: Two modes of governance in a Honduran marine protected area

Selecting the best mode of governance for marine protected areas (MPAs) especially in developing countries has generated considerable controversy in the academic and policy literature during the last 20 years. In this article, two modes – co-management (CM) and adaptive co-management (ACM) – are analysed in detail, and an examination is made of an attempt to put these modes sequentially into practice in the first (2003–2009) and second (2008–2013) management plans, respectively, of the Cayos Cochinos MPA (CCMPA) in Honduras. Extensive fieldwork was carried out during 2006–2010 in three communities dependent on the CCMPA (Rio Esteban, Nueva Armenia, and Chachahuate) including key informant interviews, focus group meetings, household surveys, and participant observation. The paper’s findings are (1) that while the first plan implemented some CM principles (such as sharing responsibility between government, stakeholders and NGOs) it failed to deliver other CM principles (such as transparency and accountability); and (2) that while the second plan increased participation and transparency, and used a more adaptive approach, it still left many stakeholders out of the decision-making process, and its processes of experimentation, monitoring and social learning were very limited. The fact is that CM and ACM are laudable objectives, but very difficult to implement in full.     

Hana Pa'a: Challenges and lessons for early phases of co-management

This case study provides in depth analysis of an early phase of natural resources co-management, rule making. Co-management involves shared management responsibility between resource users or community groups and governmental agencies, and is recommended as a key management approach for nearshore marine resources. This article explores collaborative rulemaking based on traditional management practices for a small, rural nearshore Hawaiian fishery important for local subsistence. Legislation mandated the state of Hawai‘i's natural resource management agency work with community residents to co-create and enforce rules for the fishery. By selecting a model case in which rule making has taken seven years longer than predicted, despite the presence of many established enabling conditions, this study elucidates new factors for consideration in early phases of co-management. These include legal uncertainty regarding statutory mandates, the role of bridging organizations in capacity building, cross-generational leadership development, and connection of the co-management rule-making process to the target geography. Through in depth analysis of a model collaborative rule making effort and the delays it faced, this research reveals new critical challenges while also offering suggestions to address them to build lasting collaborative capacity in other fledgling co-management efforts.     

Myosotella myosotis (Mollusca: Ellobiidae) — an overlooked,but well-established introduced species in South Africa

Myosotella myosotis is shown to be a well-established alien species in South Africa. Discovered in Port Elizabeth more than 100 years ago, it was initially thought to be indigenous and was described under two different names, but subsequent taxonomic work has demonstrated that these are synonyms of the variable and widely introduced European M. myosotis. This information, published in a revision of western Atlantic Ellobiidae, has escaped the attention of the South African marine science community. There has been no recent mention of M. myosotis or its two pseudoindigenous synonyms in the literature pertaining to either the estuaries or the malacofauna of South Africa, or to marine bioinvasions in the region. This example serves to demonstrate that invasion biology has a global context and that taxonomic literature is an important source of pertinent data. The fact that a species, which evidently occurs in abundance, can be overlooked for so long is both surprising and sobering.     

Network approach for understanding small-scale fisheries governance: The case of the Chilean coastal co-management system

Recent studies have focused on the study of social networks among local resource users, but few have attempted to study co-management networks. The objective of the research was to assess the Chilean shellfish co-management system from an organizational network perspective. Starting with one detailed case study, representatives of 38 small-scale fisher associations from two administrative regions were interviewed to investigate: (1) networks of actors in each co-management case, (2) the functions of these actors in co-management, and (3) fisher perceptions about Chile's co-management arrangement. Results indicate that decision-making is highly centralized and power is concentrated in government, with little horizontal exchange and cooperation among fisher associations. However, the network approach indicates the presence of a rich set of players, some seven sets of actors by function. Grassroots management innovations are hampered by the existing co-management structure, suggesting that the system may benefit from a modification of the policy to allow greater learning-by-doing and flexibility.     

Testing for the occurrence of pilchard herpesvirus (PHV) in South African sardine Sardinops sagax

Catches of South African sardine Sardinops sagax have declined in recent years from about 200 000 t harvested annually during the period 2002–2006 to less than 100 000 t. Consequently, some companies are now importing sardine from sources elsewhere in the world to meet local demand for canned sardine and bait. This importation has the potential for the introduction of sardine pathogens, in particular the pilchard herpesvirus (PHV), which could have a negative impact on the currently small South African sardine population. The aims of the current study were to determine whether PHV is present in the local sardine population and to assess the extent to which sardine is being imported into the country and whether imported fish are from countries where the virus is known to be endemic. Fish sampled from South Africa’s western (n = 150), southern (n = 182) and eastern (n = 96) putative stocks of S. sagax were analysed for the presence of PHV using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The origin and amount of potentially infected material imported into South Africa during the period 2010–2014 was also assessed. None of the South African sardine collected during this study tested positive for PHV, suggesting that active PHV was not prevalent in the local population of S. sagax at the time of this study. Between 56 000 and 71 000 t of frozen sardine was imported annually into South Africa from countries where S. sagax occurs, including some from areas (Australia and New Zealand) where sardine infection by PHV is known to be endemic. Hence, it is plausible that the PHV pathogen, capable of perpetuating infections in local sardine populations, could be imported into South Africa along with the importation of frozen sardine. Should local sardine be naïve to the virus, as suggested by this study, then the population is at risk of infection and precautions against such must be taken.     

User participation and institutional change in fisheries management: a viable alternative to the failures of ‘top-down’ driven control?

This article investigates the role and value of user participation in fisheries management. New empirical data on changes in the institutional structure of fisheries management systems is presented by examining the management structure of two Danish fisheries. The analysis focuses on how user participation functions are institutionalized as co-management between administrators and user groups. General lessons for successful user participation in management are deduced. The paper concludes that co-management is able to overcome some of the fundamental problems related to modern fisheries management and that co-management can work as an active and effective management tool rather than as an impediment to efficient management.     

Evolution of operational management procedures for the South African West Coast rock lobster (Jasus lalandii) fishery

The commercial fishery for Jasus lalandii, the South Africa West Coast rock lobster, began in the late 1800s and at its peak in the early 1950s yielded an annual catch of 18 000 t. Although this annual catch has dropped to only some 2000 t over recent years, the fishery remains South Africa's third most valuable for landed value. The primary reason for the low total allowable catch (TAC) over these recent years has been a marked drop in somatic growth rate that occurred at the end of the 1980s, for reasons that remain unexplained. A key problem in formulating TAC recommendations with longer‐term objectives in mind, has been uncertainties about likely future trends, particularly in somatic growth and recruitment. To address this problem, an “operational management procedure” (OMP) was adopted in 1997 and has twice been re‐evaluated and modified (in 2000 and 2003) in the light of further data and changing perceptions of resource dynamics. The history of this process is reviewed, concentrating on the most recent modification. In particular, a summary is given of the process by which the merits of alternative management procedures were evaluated over a range of important uncertainties about the dynamics of the resource. This summary includes a discussion of the key trade‐offs between resource rebuilding, future TAC trends and TAC variability, and the eventual choice that was made. The paper concludes by listing a number of lessons learnt concerning best practice for OMP development as this process evolved.     

The Potential for Environmentally Sound Development of Marine Deposits of Potassic and Phosphatic Minerals Offshore,Southern Africa

Extensive potassium and phosphorous-rich mineralization occurs on the outer continental shelf of the southern and west coasts of South Africa and Nambia. This article reviews the potential of exploiting these deposits in an environmentally sound manner for the manufacture of fertilizer. At present, reserves of potash and phosphate fertilizer are exploited from terresterial deposits, the majority being surface mined. The use of fertilizer in South Africa has shown no growth in the past 13 years, and, in some years, usage has even declined. On average, over the last decade, South Africa has consumed 2 million Mt of fertilizer (including nitrogen) per annum, the vast majority of phosphate fertilizer being produced by FOSKOR from the Phalaborwa Igneous Complex. Potash fertilizer is imported into South Africa. Although fertilizer consumption is expected to decrease in the short-term, there are good future prospects for the domestic and international fertilizer market. Considerable research into both glauconitic (containing K 2 O) and phosphatic deposits along the southern African continental shelf indicate that these sedimentary deposits have a complex genesis and mineralization. Of the total K 2 O reserves of 1300 million Mt on the southern African margin, 1000 million Mt is located off the southern African west coast, and the remainder situated on the Agulhas Bank. The largest glauconite concentration ( - 300 million Mt K 2 O) off southern Africa lies west of Saldanha Bay, South Africa. The distribution of P 2 O 5 off southern Africa is dominated by the vast deposit between Walvis Bay and Luderitz, Nambia. This reserve is estimated to contain 1000 million Mt of greater than 5% P 2 O 5 in a relatively small area of about 10000 km2. The phosphorite deposit south of Saldanha Bay constitutes a reserve of - 3500 million Mt of apatite and the deposit on the Agulhas Bank comprises 5500 million Mt. The phosphate deposit off Saldanha Bay occurs as an extensive, low to medium grade deposit. Although vast resources of potash and phosphatic minerals occur along the southern African outer continental shelf the expensive nature of marine exploitation may render most of these deposits, especially the phosphates, subeconomic. The low price of fertilizer andextensive natureontheonland deposits, although confined to asmallnumber of countries, mean that it will not be financially viable to extract these deposits. Assuming high grade glauconitic sand with the right composition can be located, the high market price indicates good future prospects for these potash deposits.     

The Potential for Environmentally Sound Development of Marine Deposits of Potassic and Phosphatic Minerals Offshore, Southern Africa

Extensive potassium and phosphorous-rich mineralization occurs on the outer continental shelf of the southern and west coasts of South Africa and Nambia. This article reviews the potential of exploiting these deposits in an environmentally sound manner for the manufacture of fertilizer. At present, reserves of potash and phosphate fertilizer are exploited from terresterial deposits, the majority being surface mined. The use of fertilizer in South Africa has shown no growth in the past 13 years, and, in some years, usage has even declined. On average, over the last decade, South Africa has consumed 2 million Mt of fertilizer (including nitrogen) per annum, the vast majority of phosphate fertilizer being produced by FOSKOR from the Phalaborwa Igneous Complex. Potash fertilizer is imported into South Africa. Although fertilizer consumption is expected to decrease in the short-term, there are good future prospects for the domestic and international fertilizer market. Considerable research into both glauconitic (containing K 2 O) and phosphatic deposits along the southern African continental shelf indicate that these sedimentary deposits have a complex genesis and mineralization. Of the total K 2 O reserves of 1300 million Mt on the southern African margin, 1000 million Mt is located off the southern African west coast, and the remainder situated on the Agulhas Bank. The largest glauconite concentration ( ±300 million Mt K 2 O) off southern Africa lies west of Saldanha Bay, South Africa. The distribution of P 2 O 5 off southern Africa is dominated by the vast deposit between Walvis Bay and Luderitz, Nambia. This reserve is estimated to contain 1000 million Mt of greater than 5% P 2 O 5 in a relatively small area of about 10000 km2. The phosphorite deposit south of Saldanha Bay constitutes a reserve of ±3500 million Mt of apatite and the deposit on the Agulhas Bank comprises 5500 million Mt. The phosphate deposit off Saldanha Bay occurs as an extensive, low to medium grade deposit. Although vast resources of potash and phosphatic minerals occur along the southern African outer continental shelf the expensive nature of marine exploitation may render most of these deposits, especially the phosphates, subeconomic. The low price of fertilizer andextensive natureontheonland deposits, although confined to asmallnumber of countries, mean that it will not be financially viable to extract these deposits. Assuming high grade glauconitic sand with the right composition can be located, the high market price indicates good future prospects for these potash deposits.     

Pathways of integrated coastal management from national policy to local implementation: Enabling climate change adaptation

Integrated coastal management (ICM) has been developing concomitantly with the realisation of the severity of the potential impacts of climate change. The discourse on climate change and adaptation has also included the awareness that adaptation must take place at all levels of government, particularly local government. Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on the physical, social, environmental and economic environments of coastal cities and towns, and in particular on the poor and vulnerable communities within these cities and towns. The crucial role that local government can play in climate protection and building cities' and communities' resilience to climate change is widely recognised at the global level. This paper explores the legal and policy connexion between ICM, local government and climate change in Mozambique and South Africa, two developing countries in Africa. The state of institutionalisation of coastal management at national through to local government is also examined. The authors contend that the state, character and maturity of the ICM policy domain can create an enabling environment within which local government agencies can prepare for future impacts of climate change. Conversely it can also limit, delay and hinder climate change adaptation. The paper concludes with the identification of some key success factors for assessing the effectiveness of the existing policy and legal frameworks to respond to the challenges of climate change. It also identifies some key principles to be included in future legislative reform to promote ICM, cooperative governance and greater preparedness for climate change at local government level.     

Co-management from the top? The roles of policy entrepreneurs and distributive conflict in developing co-management arrangements

This research examines attempts to develop co-management arrangements in the Maine lobster and Chesapeake Bay blue crab fisheries. It finds that the attributes of user groups and resources as well as government support are important in facilitating the development of co-management, but are not sufficient. This study highlights that the process of developing institutions for co-management is lengthy and time consuming and that user groups do not necessarily embrace changes to the status quo. I argue that the nature of distributional conflict and the affiliation of policy entrepreneurs account for variation in the development of co-management regimes in these cases.