Effects of dietary and water-borne oil exposure on larval pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi)

Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) larvae were exposed either directly to the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of crude oil or indirectly via oil-contaminated prey (OCP) (Artemia salina) for <- 28 days, to determine the relative effects of diet and water as routes of contamination. Larvae were affected rapidly by 0·9 ppm WSF, which caused high larval mortality, reduced swimming ability and rapid reductions in feeding rates. Larval length was significantly reduced by 0·7 ppm WSF in 7 days and by 0·3 ppm WSF within 14 days. The WSF exposure also caused similar reductions in larval weights. Highly contaminated prey (6 ppm prey exposure) caused significant mortality, but surviving larvae appeared robust. The OCP did not affect swimming, feeding, or growth. Exposure of larvae was not significantly extended by OCP, which rapidly depurated WSF in clean water (98% in 1 day). Therefore, OCP is probably not an important source of low molecular weight petroleum contamination to larval fish in the marine environment.     

Long-term effects of the water soluble fraction of prudhoe bay crude oil on survival,movement and food search success of the arctic amphipod Boeckosimus (= Onisimus) affinis

The arctic amphipod Boeckosimus (= Onisimus) affinis was exposed to the water soluble fraction (WSF) of Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Animals were constantly exposed or one-time exposed for 3 or 10 days and then removed to clean water. In constant exposure experiments mortality was correlated to the strength of the solution for 6 weeks; afterwards animals in all solutions experienced similar mortality. Food search success lessened for 2 weeks, then gradually increased. Distance moved and time spent moving decreased as the concentration of the WSF increased.Animals one-time exposed to the WSF showed initial mortality rates of 15–20%, with little further mortality. Food search success was lessened relative to the strength of the WSF and duration of exposure, with general recovery within two weeks. Distance moved was decreased, but time spent moving was not. The overall period of testing was four months.     

The combined effect of salinity,temperature and oil on the growth pattern of embryos of the killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus Walbaum

Embryos of the estuarine teleost, Fundulus heteroclitus, were exposed during development to different concentrations of the water-soluble fractions (WSF) of a No. 2 fuel oil under various temperature-salinity combinations. Temperatures and salinities were, respectively: 20, 25 or 30°C and 10, 20 or 30%S. The WSF were extracted from No. 2 fuel oil daily and diluted to concentrations of 15, 20 or 25% of the original mixture. Controls were exposed to seawater without WSF at each temperature-salinity combination.The length of eleutheroembryos was markedly decreased by exposure to WSF. Temperature exerted an effect on growth at low WSF concentrations (0 and 15% WSF) but not at higher ones. The two highest WSF concentrations had a predominant effect on growth that was not further modified by physical factor influences. Conversely, as the WSF exposure increased, the yolk diameter increased, indicating a decreased utilisation of yolk material during development. The mean number of vertebrae in the eleutheroembryos decreased at high WSF concentrations and at high temperatures. Morphological abnormalities consisted predominantly of spinal deformations (scoliosis and lordosis). The data indicate that the survivors of chemical toxicity during embryo development exhibit sublethal responses which would reduce their survival potential in later life.     

A comparison between the physiological effects in fish exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations of a dispersant and dispersed oil

The acute and sublethal effects of a dispersant and crude oil on anisosmotic and isosmotic regulation in flounder have been tested. Flounder were exposed to different concentrations of Corexit 9527 and crude oil by use of a biotest system. Fourteen days' exposure to 20 ppm of Corexit 9527, alone or in a 1:1 mixture with crude oil, had no effect on the blood parameters. On the other hand, 96 hours' exposure to 80 ppm of the same compounds led to 50 % mortality and significant effects on the blood parameters in surviving fish. The comparability between effects obtained in fish exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations of toxicants, respectively, is discussed.     

Toxicity of a fuel oil to the eggs of parhyale hawaiensis and amphithoe valida (amphipoda)

Experiments were carried out on the toxicity of a fuel oil to developing embryos and juveniles of two marine amphipods. Parhyale hawaiensis eggs were able to develop from early germinal disc stage (early eggs) to juvenile form in concentrations of 10 (2 ppm) up to 40% (8 ppm) WSF, but deleterious effects were evident in hatching success of eggs and survival of juveniles at concentrations ≥ 10% WSF. The juveniles that hatched from those eggs in higher WSFs had greater mortality than the juveniles that hatched from the eggs exposed to lower WSFs. Survival of juveniles from late eggs (cephalic region differentiated) was also greater than those from early eggs. Amphithoe valida eggs were more sensitive to the WSF of fuel oil than the eggs of P. hawaiensis; < 10% of the test eggs hatched in the 4 ppm WSF compared with 66% of P. hawaiensis eggs at the same concentration. The toxicity of fuel oil to the two amphipod eggs is therefore dependent on the concentration and duration of exposure on the one hand, and on the developmental stages and probably the nature of the egg case on the other.     

Sublethal effects of the water-soluble fraction of ekofisk crude oil on the early larval stages of cod (Gadus morhua L.)

Low levels of dissolved oil hydrocarbons are demonstrated to produce sublethal effects on the early cod larval stages. These effects are discussed in relation to larval survival through the first critical stages.Continuous exposure of cod eggs and larvae to 0·05 and 0·25 ppm of the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Ekofisk crude oil for 14 days caused significant reduction in growth and change in neutral buoyancy. The larvae exposed to 0·25 ppm showed malformation in the foremost part of the head and jaw, which reduced their ability to capture prey organisms at first feeding.     

The effects of a water-soluble petroleum fraction on the neuroid electrical activity of the hydroid coelenterate Tubularia crocea

Several properties of the excitable epithelium of the hydroid coelenterate, Tubularia crocea, are affected by a water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Platform Holly, Monterey Formation, crude oil (100% WSF= 20 ppm total hydrocarbons). In a flowing seawater system, 0·5 ml pulses of 1 WSF cause a significant increase in the epithelial pulse activity, while a 10·min exposure to 0·1% WSF produces a significant increase in the epithelial pulse frequency. Electrophysiological responses to the volatile and non-volatile subfractions are equal, but significantly lower than those to the whole WSF. Behaviorally, the 100% WSF elicits a more vigorous proximal tentacle closure than either its volatile or non-volatile subfraction. However, the closure response to the volatile subfraction exceeds that for the non-volatile component.Of the two epithelial neuroid pulse systems, the hydranth pulse (HP) system is affected to a greater extent than the neck pulse (NP) system. During 10 minutes' treatment with 100% WSF the amplitude of the neck pulses and hydranth pulses declined by 50% and 80%, respectively. The maximum ³H-toluene uptake from 100% WSF also occurs within this period, and sodium and calcium concentrations fluctuate rapidly. These results suggest that a rapid bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons by T. crocea alters membrane permeability, upsetting critical ion gradients which, in turn, alter the firing frequency of the epithelial conducting systems. This study demonstrates that concentrations of WSF approaching environmentally realistic levels (in areas of chronic pollution) alter the epithelial conducting systems that co-ordinate important elements of behavior in Tubularia. This system provides a sensitive neuroid-behavioral assay for aquatic contaminants.     

Chronic sublethal effects of the water soluble fractions of no. 2 fuel oils on the marine isopod, Sphaeroma quadridentatum

Two series of experiments were carried out to assess the long-term effects of the water soluble fractions (WSF) of fuel oils on the marine isopod, Sphaeroma quadridentatum. In one experiment, juvenile isopods (one month old) were exposed to sublethal concentrations (0·1% to 15% WSF) of a fuel oil (Baytown, Exxon) at room temperatures of 24 ± 1–6°C for nine months. These isopods survived to maturity and reproduced. However, growth rate was adversely affected at concentration ≥ 3% WSF and fecundity was depressed at concentrations ≥ 1% WSF. Survival of offspring in clean seawater was dependent to a large extent on the history of the previous generation. Offspring from groups exposed to ≥ 1% WSF experienced high mortality (> 70% within five weeks) even in clean seawater. This may imply that a population of Sphaeroma exposed to WSF as low as 0·2 ppm may eventually disappear, although animals can grow to maturity and reproduce at concentrations < 3 ppm.In another experiment, adult Sphaeroma (three months old) were subjected to the WSFs of four fuel oils (Baton Rouge, Baytown, Montana and New Jersey) for one month. Fecundity was depressed at a concentration > 15% WSF, regardless of the kind of fuel oil. On the other hand, the number of young produced bythe surviving females varied with the type of fuel oil for the same level of WSF. This may be attributed to different relative amounts of toxic components present in the WSF.     

The effects of used ferrochrome lignosulphonate drilling muds from a Santa Barbara channel oil well on the development of starfish embryos

The effects of water-soluble fractions (WSF) of thirteen used ferrochrome lignosulphonate muds on developing embryos of Patiria miniata were studied. The muds were collected during the drilling of a single slant well from Platform Hondo in the Santa Barbara Channel, California, at drilling depths of 4220 to 9858 ft. None of the embryos survived 48 hours' exposure in 25 % WSF of the muds (25,000 ppm mud added (v/v)). Significant reduction in growth and high abnormalities (up to 100%) were observed in the 15% WSF. In lesser concentrations the effects varied from significant reduction of growth, down to 0·5% for three muds, to significant enhancement of growth for several muds in some dilutions. The EC₅₀'s ranged from 5% to greater than 15% WSF. In the 5% WSF, decreased embryo growth was correlated with increasing Cr concentrations and possibly also with total organic carbon (TOC). Although experiments carried out with NaOH addition to simulate the strong alkalinity of the muds showed increased abnormalities and decreased embryo growth with increasing pH, in the chemically complex WSF (5% dilution) the opposite effect occurred. Dissociation of chrome lignosulphonate molecules from particulates may occur with increasing acidity and explain the relationship between pH and toxicity in dilute WSF. The results of these experiments are discussed in terms of the effects of dispersions of drilling muds in the oceanic environment. It is concluded that water column effects on organisms during the dumping of such muds are only likely within short distances of the discharge pipes of offshore drill rigs.     

Behavioural responses of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana (da Costa) subjected to short-term copper (Cu II) concentrations

Short-term (6 h) behavioural responses and mortality of Scrobicularia exposed to low concentrations of copper in sea water (31%, S) have been investigated.Scrobicularia can detect copper at a concentration of 0·01 ppm. The initial response is valve closure resulting in a rapid drop in heart rate. In concentrations of 0·05, 0·01 and, to a lesser extent, 0·1 ppm copper added to sea water, the clams begin to interact with the polluted water after 2–3 h. In 0·5 ppm, the valves remain closed and the heart rate is maintained at a low level over the 6-h exposure period.Mortality increases with time in 0·5 ppm copper concentration, reaching 50% in 5–7 days. In 0·05 and 0·01 ppm, no mortality was recorded over this period.There is an increase in mantle cavity water calcium concentration after 6 h in 0·5 ppm, in contrast to 0·1, 0·05 and 0·01 ppm. Aspects of anaerobiosis, accumulation of heavy metals and survival are discussed in relation to the behaviour of Scrobicularia exposed to various copper concentrations.     

Effects of oil exposure on oxygen consumption of cod eggs and larvae

The oxygen consumption reflects the aerobic energy production of an animal. For fish eggs and larvae the normal oxygen consumption represents the optimal conditions for growth and development. Under the stress of environmental pollution gross deviation in oxygen uptake rate of the developing fish embryo may reflect metabolic disturbances and impede the development. Since the eggs and larvae of cod (Gadus morhua L.) are likely to be exposed to oil pollution from offshore installations in the North Sea we decided to investigate the effects of the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of North Sea crude oil on the oxygen consumption of cod eggs and larvae. The results showed that oxygen consumption of the larvae at the time of final yolk absorption (5–7 days post hatching at 5°C) is strongly suppressed by oil exposure at concentrations down to 50 ppb. No effect on the oxygen uptake, however, was found during the egg stage.     

Editorial

A flow-through system for exposure of seagrass to pollutants is described. Sea water with dissolved atrazine or PCP (pentachlorophenol) was pumped through a sealed 2-litre volume glass exposure vessel that contained either whole plants or leaves of Thalassia testudinum. Effects of the compounds on oxygen evolution and uptake by leaves were measured after exposure for 40 and 88 h. Rate of oxygen evolution was depressed strongly after 40 h by 1 ppm of atrazine or PCP. The rate of oxygen uptake was slightly depressed by atrazine but strongly depressed by PCP. Photosynthesis/respiration ratios were depressed to less than one by 1 ppm of atrazine or PCP and by 0·5 ppm atrazine. EC₅₀ values based upon depression of oxygen evolution after 40 hours exposure were: atrazine, 0·32 ppm PCP, 0·74 ppm. The data suggest that leaves may recover from, or adapt to, the presence of either toxicant.     

原油污染对栉孔扇贝抗氧化酶活性的影响

以原油水溶性成分(water soluble fraction of crude oil,WSF)为污染物,采用暴露实验法,研究了栉孔扇贝(Chlamys farreri)鳃和消化腺组织中超氧化物歧化酶(Superoxide Dismutase,SOD)和过氧化氢酶(Catalase,CAT)活性的变化.结果表明,WSF污染下,鳃和消化腺组织SOD和CAT酶活性随暴露时间增加一般表现为降低-升高-降低的趋势,酶活性达到最高的时间随浓度不同而变化.第1天时消化腺SOD在0.08 mg/L浓度下被诱导,而后随时间增加表现为抑制效应;浓度为0.21和0.88 mg/L时消化腺SOD酶活性被抑制,随暴露时间延长而活性增加.暴露时间为4d时,石油烃浓度在0.08和0.88 mg/L时鳃组织SOD酶活性均被抑制,而浓度为0.21 mg/L时被诱导.消化腺和鳃组织SOD可以作为扇贝被污染胁迫的指标.     

Reproductive life history stages sensitive to oil and naphthalene in Atlantic croaker

The reproductive effects of chronic exposure to water-soluble fractions (WSF) of diesel fuel oil and naphthalene in female Atlantic croaker during critical periods of their reproductive life history were investigated. Fish were repeatedly exposed to WSF of oil (2.5 or 5%) or naphthalene (0.5 or 1.0 ppm) for 5 or 8 weeks. Both pollutants blocked sexual maturation in some fish and impaired ovarian recrudescence in others. The majority of the oocytes in exposed fish were undeveloped and widespread oocyte atresia was evident at higher concentrations of these polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The disruption of ovarian growth and oocyte development in croaker after PAH exposure was associated with alterations in reproductive endocrine function at multiple sites on the hypothalamus-pituitarygonadal axis. A third period of increased sensitivity to xenobiotics was observed during final oocyte maturation.     

Effects of low pCO2 conditions on sea urchin larval size

Ocean acidification results from an increase in the concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) impacts on marine calcifying species, which is predicted to become more pronounced in the future. By the end of this century, atmospheric pCO₂ levels will have doubled relative to the pre‐industrial levels of 280 ppm. However, the effects of pre‐industrial pCO₂ levels on marine organisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of pre‐industrial pCO₂ conditions on the size of the pluteus larvae of sea urchins, which are known to be vulnerable to ocean acidification. The larval size of Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus significantly increased when reared at pre‐industrial pCO₂ level relative to the present one, and the size of Anthocidaris crassispina larvae decreased as the pCO₂ levels increased from the pre‐industrial level to the near future ones after 3 days' exposure. In this study, it is suggested that echinoid larvae responded to pre‐industrial pCO₂ levels. Ocean acidification may be affecting some sensitive marine calcifiers even at the present pCO₂ level.     

原油WSF对三种海洋鱼类肝微粒体EROD活性的诱导和恢复的比较

研究了实验室条件下原油水溶性组分(WSF)暴露对黑鲷、黄鳍鲷和褐菖鲉肝微粒体EROD活性的剂量-效应,时间-效应和恢复过程。实验结果表明,在剂量诱导实验中,褐菖鲉肝EROD活性在原油WSF浓度为50μg/dm3时呈现生物统计学上的显著差异,而黑鲷和黄鳍鲷肝EROD活性在75μg/dm3时才呈现生物统计学上的显著差异;褐菖鲉肝EROD活性诱导倍数最高,但黑鲷的诱导浓度范围较广。在时间诱导实验中,在40μg/dm3原油WSF暴露下黄鳍鲷肝EROD活性在2 d时首先呈现显著差异;三种鱼肝EROD活性均在第4天达到最高,并呈现显著性变化,此后随着暴露时间的延长而逐渐下降并接近对照组水平。在恢复实验中三种鱼肝EROD活性下降并恢复到对照组水平。研究结果表明:对于石油污染物,黑鲷、黄鳍鲷和褐菖鲉肝EROD活性都可以作为污染生化效应监测指标,然而就三种鱼类比较而言,褐菖鲉最敏感,更适合于作为石油类污染及其生化效应,尤其是低剂量效应的监测生物。     

Effects of oil exposure on pink salmon,Oncorhynchus gorbuscha,alevins in a simulated intertidal environment

Pink salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, alevins (5 and 60 days after hatching) were continuously or intermittently exposed for 30 days to the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Cook Inlet crude oil in fresh water or in a simulated freshwater-seawater cycle. Alevins exposed to 0·7−2·4 mg/liter WSF in the simulated tidal cycle were more sensitive to oil, had reduced yolk reserves, and accumulated more hydrocarbons than did alevins exposed to the same concentrations in fresh water. Alevins in fresh water were more sensitive to continuous than to intermittent exposures. In all exposures, 60-day alevins were more severely affected than were 5-day alevins.     

Toxicity of Santa Barbara seep oil to starfish embryos: Part 2—the growth bioassay

The asteroid Patiria miniata was used to develop a static bioassay for various crude oil water-soluble fractions (WSF). The criterion used is the size of 48-h exposed embryos. The reasons for choosing this species and the growth criterion are discussed. Experiments show that the body length of 48-h exposed embryos is inversely proportional to hydrocarbon concentration of the WSF and the time of exposure. It is also shown that the toxicity of the WSF decreases with the age of the preparation and that the first 12 h following fertilisation are most sensitive to the effects of WSF.     

大港原油对毛蚶部分抗氧化酶和代谢酶的影响研究

为研究港原油对毛蚶部分抗氧化酶和代谢酶的影响,设置0.01、0.1、1、3mg/L大港原油水溶液性成分(WSF),采用暴露法研究毛蚶天津群体的鳃、斧足中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GPX)抗氧化酶等抗氧化酶及酸性磷酸酶(ACP)、碱性磷酸酶(AKP)、钠/钾泵(Na^+/K^+ATPase)、钙泵(Ga²⁺/Mg²⁺ATPase)等代谢相关酶的活性变化,测定丙二醛(MDA)含量,采用整合生物标志物(Integratedbiomarkerresponse,IBR)进行分析。结果表明,毛蚶鳃和斧足中SOD、CAT、GPX表现出一定的剂量-效应关系, MDA含量呈先升高后降低的趋势, 3 mg/L组表现出MDA累积;ACP、AKP、Na^+/K^+ATPase、Ga²⁺/Mg²⁺ATPase表现出一定剂量-效应关系,酸性磷酸酶较碱性磷酸酶响应更迅速, Na^+/K^+ATPase较Ga²⁺/Mg²⁺ATPase更易受WSF影响;鳃中酶类活性受WSF影响更明显。鳃中SOD、GPX、MDA较斧足高,而CAT则相反。斧足、鳃组织RIB值呈现先下降后上升趋势,与WSF浓度及暴露时间存在剂量-效应关系和时间-效应关系,两组之间存在差异性,斧足累积RIB值高于鳃组织。     

Laboratory-scale evaluation of the potential of chemical containment for farmed abalone larval escapees

The sensitivity of abalone Haliotis midae larvae to low levels of toxicants was used to conduct a laboratoryscale experiment to determine the possibility of using chemical containment to prevent the escape of larvae from land-based culture systems, thereby reducing the environmental impact of farming operations. The cryoprotective agent, dimethyl sulphoxide or DMSO (Me₂SO), was used as a toxicant and embryos were exposed to increasing concentrations (0–25.60 mol l^–1) of DMSO for a period of 24 hours. Hatch-out rates of the control group (0.0% DMSO) did not differ from those obtained at 0.2% (2.56 mol l^–1) and 0.4% (5.12 mol l^–1) DMSO. An exposure level at and above 0.6% DMSO resulted in a significant decrease in the number of normal larvae. At an exposure concentration of 0.6% (7.68 mol l^–1) DMSO, 65% (SE 3.0) of the fertilised eggs hatched, compared to only 10% (SE 2.0) at a concentration of 1.0% (12.80 mol l^–1) DMSO. This study indicates the potential for use of DMSO as a form of chemical containment of abalone larvae, even at very low doses. It presents South African abalone farms with a chemical containment method that could potentially be used to prevent the unintentional escape of H. midae larvae from land-based operations.