岷江上游流域裂点分布及成因分析

均衡状态时的基岩河道纵剖面表现为平滑形态,然而自然界的河道纵剖面常因地球各种内外动力作用的影响而呈现出以裂点为特征的不均衡状态,因此不均衡的河道剖面及裂点的特征可以用于指示外界环境的扰动。位于青藏高原东缘造山带的岷江上游流域水系普遍呈现不均衡的特征,且广泛发育有裂点。文章基于数字高程模型,提取裂点空间分布特征,通过裂点成因分析后发现,这些裂点的形成受到岩性、冰川作用、构造等因素的影响：因岩性形成的裂点主要位于花岗岩与其他地层的交界线上;而高海拔裂点主要受到冰川作用的控制,位于地形起伏度较低的区域;流域内低海拔区域成层分布的坡断型裂点可能主要因多期次区域构造隆升而形成;岷江上游下段流域的阶梯状垂阶型裂点则主要因地震滑坡形成。这一结果增进了对岷江流域的河流地貌发育及其影响因素的理解。此外,研究结果也说明在对河道纵剖面分析时有必要更多考虑到滑坡及冰川等因素对现代河道纵剖面产生的重要影响,为进一步理解造山带地貌演化及控制因素提供了参考视角。     

IRS-P5影像提取DEM技术在大青山山前断裂古地震研究的应用

以内蒙古大青山山前断裂中间三段的IRS-P5全色立体像对为例生成DEM,利用检查点法对DEM进行精度评定,DEM的高程精度能达到1:10 000地形图山地和高山地测图中误差要求。在DEM数据中提取了横穿断裂的25条冲沟,并在冲沟纵剖面中提取了该断裂在全新世活动形成的裂点。在从左到右三段断裂上升盘的冲沟中分别识别出6、5和3级裂点序列。通过土右西段和土左西段最新一级裂点后退距离和公元849年地震距今时间,分别计算了这两段上各条冲沟最新一级裂点的后退速率,并以此速率作为各条冲沟裂点的后退速率。利用土右西和土左西两条冲沟最新一级裂点的后退速率平均值作为毕克齐段冲沟裂点后退速率。结合三段上各条冲沟裂点后退距离,分别得到断裂上升盘冲沟各级裂点形成时间,从而得到三段断裂全新世古地震事件序列。本研究得到的大青山山前断裂中间三段全新世古地震序列与前人通过探槽开挖和利用断层下降盘全新世古土壤揭露的古地震序列能够很好地对比。     

雅砻江流域河道高程剖面上的堰塞坝印记

堰塞坝会对山区河流的纵剖面产生强烈扰动,在某些情况下,堰塞坝造成的河流纵剖面变陡很容易与构造作用下基准面下降的迁移裂点混淆.然而,在何种程度下堰塞坝会影响基于地貌测量的构造分析还没有系统的研究.因此本文选取青藏高原东缘的雅砻江流域为研究对象,利用遥感影像解译,结合数字高程模型(DEM),来研究堰塞坝对河流纵剖面的影响....     

思茅盆地河流地貌特征及其对构造活动的响应

河流地貌对构造活动具有极高的相关性、敏感性,是研究新构造活动最切实有效的地摘貌标要志之一。本文以30 m分辨率数字高程模型（DEM）为基础,利用ArcMap与Matlab软件提取的河流地貌因子（Horton定律比值和S-A双对数曲线）,先后分析了思茅盆地内部的李仙江、藤条江、勐戛河、威远江、南班河和南腊河等的河流地貌特征,揭示新生代晚期强烈构造活动对河流发育的影响。结果表明：1）思茅盆地的河流多沿或平行于走滑断裂发育,低级别河网较好的符合Horton定律中一般河网的发育规律,而沿活动断裂带发育的高级别河网则表现出了明显的偏差;2）各集水盆地 S-A双对数曲线均呈凹凸相间排列;3）各集水盆地河道的裂点分布特征与岩性变化不一致,这表明思茅盆地内部高级别河网的发育受岩性变化的影响较小,而主要受走滑断裂活动的影响。     

循化-贵德地区黄河水系河流纵剖面形态特征及其构造意义

青藏高原东北缘循化-贵德地区晚新生代构造活动强烈,同时晚新生代黄河的发育和演化也提供了研究高原构造隆升扩展以及黄河侵蚀下切过程的理想场所。黄河水系通过调整河流纵剖面的形态在垂向上响应不同的构造隆升以及河床岩性的变化。利用数字高程模型数据,提取黄河水系河流纵剖面形态,利用基岩河道河流水力侵蚀模型（stream-power incision model）为依托,尝试揭示晚新生代以来强烈构造活动在黄河水系河流纵剖面形态特征上的表现。分析发现,在循化-贵德地区岩性分布均匀的新生代盆地内部,黄河水系纵剖面在河流水力侵蚀模型坡度-面积双对数图解中大部分表现为上凸特征,即基岩河道的河床随时间的变化为正值,指示了基岩的隆升速率大于河流的下切侵蚀速率。在河流流经盆地内部不同岩性地区,特别是前新生界地层区,河流纵剖面也表现为一定的上凸特征,表明了新生界与前新生界地层岩性差异对河流纵剖面的控制作用。综合来看,青藏高原东北缘循化-贵德地区黄河水系河流纵剖面形态特征是晚新生代强烈构造活动和岩性差异共同控制的结果,揭示了循化-贵德地区造山系统地形发育仍然处于前均衡或接近均衡状态,同时也从侧面表明青藏高原东北缘地区是整个高原隆升扩展的最新和最前缘部位的时空格局特征。     

新构造运动影响下的雅鲁藏布江水系发育和河流地貌特征

雅鲁藏布江(雅江)水系发育和河流地貌演变受新构造运动的强烈影响。通过野外调查,结合SRTM(航天飞机雷达地形测绘使命)数据分析和Google Earth三维地图功能,对雅江河网形态及河流地貌特征进行了分析,并采用EH4电磁成像系统测量了雅江及其支流宽谷河道淤沙深度。研究发现,雅江河网呈现格状水系特点,同时具有枝状河网的拓扑性质,这主要是由于新构造运动的影响,河网发育过程中受到南北向挤压和东西向拉伸所至。青藏高原阶段性不均匀抬升形成了宽窄相间的藕节状河道形态,宽阔河段河道为辫状河型,而窄深河段为深切的V型河谷、单一顺直河型,纵剖面上构成裂点。裂点河段地块相对上升较快,阻滞了水流和泥沙,上游河段大量卵石和泥沙在河谷里淤积深达800多米,形成了平整而宽阔的U型河谷。整个雅江宽谷段泥沙淤积量约0.9万亿m³。     

Late Neogene Mountain Building of Eastern Kunlun Orogen: Constrained by DEM Analysis

Topography, as a net result of the dynamic interaction between endogenesis and exogenesis, holds immense information on tectonic uplift, surface erosion and thus mountain building. The eastern Kunlun (昆仑) orogen, which experienced significant Late Neogene tectonic uplift and is located in an arid environment, is advantageous for morphotectonlc analysis based on well-preserved tectonic landforms. The digital elevation model (DEM) analysis was carried out for the central segment of the eastern Kunlun orogen based on shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) data. River longitudinal profile analysis indicates that major rivers across the orogen are characterized by high river gradient indexes and intensive tectonic uplift. Differential uplift was also identified in swath-topography analysis in the studied area, which can be divided into three major tectonic-geomorphic units by orogenicstrike-parallel faults. It is indicated that the most active region is located to the south of the Xidatan (西大滩) fault with significant differential uplift. Another identified fault with differential uplift is the Middle Kuninn fault; however, the timing of which is suggested to be much older than that of the Xidatan fault. These analyses are eoneordantly supported by both field survey and studies of thermochronology, which in turn indicates that the DEM analysis bears great potential in morphotectonic analysis.     

A new method for analyzing the effects of joints and stratigraphy on spring locations: a case study from the Sacramento Mountains, south central New Mexico, USA

A novel method for analyzing the effects that stratigraphic layers and joints have on spring locations is presented, with specific relevance for the southern Sacramento Mountains, south central New Mexico, USA. Bedrock in this heavily vegetated mountain block is mostly covered by alluvium and soil, making direct field observations difficult, and necessitating alternative methods. Elevations of a mapped geologic contact are used to produce a three-dimensional stratigraphic surface. A histogram of spring stratigraphic positions, calculated from this surface, indicates zones of preferential groundwater flow. Field measurements are combined with GIS analyses to quantify joint control on spring locations within stream valleys, and these results are compared to traditional lineament analysis. Stream valleys are parallel to joints observed in the field, and joint-parallel segments selected from digital elevation model (DEM)-mapped streams are up to 900 m in length. The abundance of springs throughout the study area decreases logarithmically with distance from these joint-parallel stream segments. Springs are more than twice as abundant within 25 m of joint-parallel stream segments compared with manually mapped lineaments from air-photos. Higher correlation with spring locations and significant time reduction by using GIS to select joint-parallel streams for lineament interpretation indicate that the method provides a good alternative to manual lineament analysis.     

Knickpoints along the upper Indus River,Pakistan: an exploratory survey of geomorphic processes

This article summarizes an exploratory study carried out to investigate the significance of various geomorphic features on the formation of observed knickpoints along the upper Indus River in northern Pakistan. These features include bedrock lithology, active faults, sediment flux from tributary channels, and landslide dams which have blocked the main channel. The knickpoints and their related geomorphic parameters (channel profile, concavity, drainage area and normalized steepness index, etc.) were extracted from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection (ASTER) Global Digital Elevation Models (GDEMs) with 30 m resolution using ArcGIS, River Tools, and Matlab software. A total of 251 major and minor knickpoints were extracted from the longitudinal profile along a ~ 750 km reach upstream of Tarbela Reservoir. The identified knickpoints and their respective normalized steepness index (k_sn values) were compared with bedrock lithology, mapped faults, regional landslide/rockslide inventory, and the locations of historic landslide dams. The analyses revealed that the knickpoints do not correlate with the bedrock lithology except where major unit boundaries coexist with mapped faults, especially in reaches criss-crossed by active thrust faults in the Nanga Parbat Haramosh (NPHM) region. Neither did the river’s major confluences exhibit any notable knickpoints, but the correlations between knickpoints, mapped landslides, and historic rockslide avalanche dams accounted for approximately 75% of the observed knickpoints, a surprising finding. These observations suggest that more detailed studies aided by high resolution data should be undertaken to further explore the characteristics of knickpoints triggered by tectonic uplift, local fault offset, bedrock erodibility, and landslide/rockslide dams.     

祁连山北部基岩河道宽度对构造和岩性的响应

活动造山带基岩河流地貌研究,目前已成为构造地貌学研究的前沿和热点。河道宽度形态的调整变化是基岩河流响应构造、岩性和气候等扰动的重要方式之一。通过研究祁连山北部地区6个重点流域基岩河道的宽度形态发现:河道宽度总体上呈现出东西向和南北向的变化特征,河道向下游增宽的速率,东段地区显著高于中段地区,低山带显著高于高山带;对比河道宽度的变化特征与构造抬升速率及岩性抗蚀性的变化,可以推断:在祁连山北部地区,基岩河道宽度响应构造抬升和岩性抗蚀性的变化进行了系统地调整,构造抬升控制了流域河道宽度变化的总体趋势,而岩性抗蚀性变化则导致了流域内部局部河段河道宽度的大幅波动。在祁连山北部地区开展的基岩河道宽度形态研究,为利用基岩河道形态研究造山带的构造变形奠定了基础,对于探索构造抬升背景下地貌的发育过程具有十分重要的意义。     

Lithologic and structural controls on fluvial knickzones in basalts of the Paraná Basin,Brazil

Knickzones are common features along rivers on the basaltic plateaus of the Paraná Basin. According to current conceptual models, knickpoints are formed in massive basalts that have a high density of vertical joints. Vesicular–amygdaloidal basalts and those with horizontal joints tend to form reaches of low slope due to their lower resistance to erosion. However, field surveys revealed complexities in this general relationship. The research presented here sought to verify the controls on the genesis of knickzones in this type of geological environment. We studied a 61 km-long mixed bedrock–alluvial river. The longitudinal profile of the river was surveyed on a topographic map with 5 m contour intervals. Tectonic lineaments oriented transverse to the channel and longitudinal lineaments in which the river lies were identified from maps. A detailed field survey of the lithologic characteristics of the riverbed was also performed. The results show that knickzones may form in any litho-structural zone in the flood basalts. On the other hand, low slope zones are predominantly sculpted into vesicular–amygdaloidal basalts, which are less resistant to erosion. The fracture densities of vesicular–amygdaloidal basalts are similar in low slope zones and in knickzones (4.86 and 4.93 m/m², respectively). This indicates that knickzones in this type of basalt are not caused by higher resistance to erosion. Approximately 60% of the 18 knickzones identified are associated with tectonic lineaments, irrespective of the structural characteristics of the basalts. Vesicular–amygdaloidal basalt and/or basalt with horizontal joints allow the fastest knickzone migration and aid in the formation of convexities. Knickpoints in these basalts do not migrate, but erosion in the pools advances downstream and breaks the bedrock steps, thus increasing the slope. Massive basalt with vertical joints causes slower migration, and its presence at convexities indicates local uplift. Convex segments are only formed upstream of faults.     

Stability of landslide dams and development of knickpoints

The Wenchuan earthquake triggered many landslides and numerous avalanches and created 100 odd quake lakes. The quake lakes may be removed or preserved. The removal strategy was applied to several large landslide dams, which were dangerous because massive amounts of water pooled up in the quake lakes. The dams could eventually fail under the action of dam outburst flooding, potentially endangering the lives of people in the downstream reaches. This paper studied the stability of landslide dams and the development of knickpoints by field investigations and experiments, and analyzing satellite images. The study concluded that if landslide dams were preserved, they would develop into knickpoints and act as a primary control of riverbed incision and, thus, reduce the potential of new landslide. The stability of landslide dams depends mainly on the development of the step-pool system and stream power of the flood flow. If a landslide dam consists of many boulders, a step-pool system may develop on the spillway channel of the dam, which would maximize the resistance, consume most of the flow energy and consequently protect the dam from incision. The development degree of the step-pool system is represented by a parameter S _p, which was measured with a specially designed instrument. A preservation ratio of landslide dams is defined as the ratio of preserved height after flood scouring to the original height of the dam. For streams with peak flood discharge lower than 30 m³/s, the preservation ratio is linearly proportional to S _p. For rivers with a peak flood discharge higher than 30 m³/s (30–30,000 m³/s), the minimum S _p value for stable channel increases with log p, in which p is the unit stream power. For a landslide dam with a poorly developed step-pool system, S _p is smaller than the minimum value and the outburst flood incises the spillway channel and causes failure of the dam. For preserved landslide dams, sediment deposits in the quake lakes. A landslide dam may develop into a knickpoint if it is stabilized by long-term action of the flow. Large knickpoints can totally change the fluvial processes and river morphology. Uplift of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau has caused extensive channel bed incision along almost all rivers. For many rivers, the incision has been partly controlled by knickpoints. Upstream reaches of a knickpoint have a new and unchanging base level. This brings about a transition from degradation to aggradation and from vertical bed evolution to horizontal fluvial process. Multiple and unstable channels are prominent in the reaches, upstream of the knickpoints. If hundreds of landslide dams occurred simultaneously on a reach of a mountain river, the potential energy of bank failure and the slope erosion would be greatly reduced and sediment yield from the watershed may be reduced to nearly zero. The quake lakes may be preserved long term and become beautiful landscapes. Streams with long-term unfilled quake lakes have good aquatic ecology.     

崩滑堰塞坝(湖)的地貌环境效应

崩滑堰塞坝(湖)具有显著的地貌环境效应,这种效应在时间尺度上分为短期和长期2种,主要表现在河流水文过程、地貌演变、环境生态、景观等方面.堰塞坝形成初期河流原有生境受到干扰,河流生态和景观出现退化.堰塞体溃决强烈改变下游水文过程及河流地貌,严重冲击河流生境和生态,并可能对下游基础设施和群众生命财产造成灾难性破坏.长期稳定维持的堰塞坝深刻影响河流地貌过程,并显著改善河流生境、生态,提升景观水平.堰塞坝(湖)是河床持续下切、岸坡失稳而自然反馈形成的裂点,能增加河流阻力,控制河床下切,如能长期维持是河流健康稳定的促进因素.     

基于河长—坡降指数的滑坡堵江事件自动识别

由于本身特征的复杂差异性和背景环境信息干扰,目前地质灾害自动识别难度较大,尚无法满足应用需求。利用算法自动提取某类地质灾害普遍具备且明显区别于周围地物的特征,是实现地质灾害自动识别的有效途径。一定规模的滑坡堵江事件常通过链式过程在山间河谷形成裂点等诸多微地貌特征,成为其遥感解译和现场调查的重要标志。本文从河流地貌演化角度出发,以河流裂点作为滑坡堵江的普遍地貌特征,提出了基于河长-坡降指数（Stream Length-gradient index,SL) 的滑坡堵江事件自动识别方法,并通过GIS程序设计和编写提供了相应功能模块。以DEM、遥感影像和区域地质图为数据源,利用该方法在西藏亚东县康布麻曲上游流域开展应用分析,得到以下结论:针对1:5万DEM数据,采样点计算间隔设定为300m比较合理,能够同时满足降低数据误差和突出地形差异的要求;研究区中不同因素按照对河流地貌的改造程度,排序为滑坡堵江>基岩变化>构造活动;经验证研究区滑坡堵江事件自动提取的正确率达85.71%,表明在高山峡谷地区,基于河长—坡降指数开展滑坡堵江事件自动识别具有可行性,效果理想。     

Morphological analysis of the drainage system in the Eastern Alps

We study the morphology of the major rivers draining the Eastern Alps to test whether the active tectonics of this part of the orogen is reflected in the shape of channel profiles of the river network. In our approach we compare channel profiles measured from digital elevation models with numerically modelled channel profiles using a stream power approach. It is shown that regions of high stream power coincide largely with regions of highest topography and largest uplift rates, while the forelands and the Pannonian Basin are characterised by a significantly lower stream power. From stream power modelling we conclude that there is young uplift at the very east of the Eastern Alps, in the Bohemian Massif and in the Pohorje Range. The impact of the Pleistocene glaciations is explored by comparing properties of rivers that drain in proximal and distal positions relative to the ice sheet during the last glacial maximum. Our analysis shows that most knick points, wind gaps and other non-equilibrium features of catchments covered by ice during the last glaciations (Salzach, Enns) can be correlated with glacial processes. In contrast the ice free catchments of the Mur and Drava are characterized by channels in morphological equilibrium at the first approximation and are showing only weak evidence of the strong tectonic activity within these catchments. Finally, the channel profiles of the Adige and the divide between the upper Rhine and Danube catchments differ significantly from the other catchments. We relate this to the fact that the Adige and the Rhine respond to different base levels from the remainder of the Eastern Alps: The Adige may preserve a record from the Messininan base level change and the Rhine is subject to the base level lowering in the Rhine Graben.     

洮河水系流域地貌特征及其构造指示意义

通过数字高程模型(DEM)的空间分析技术,系统提取研究区洮河水系流域盆地典型的河流地貌参数,并利用活动造山带地区发育的基岩河道纵向剖面形态等典型参数,分析洮河水系流域盆地地貌发育不对称性特征及洮河在岷县流向的急剧转变成因。研究表明洮河上游南岸水系较北岸水系形状指数高、流域面积大、水系发育更成熟,下游东岸河流河长较短、流域面积小、形状指数低于西岸,西岸水系更发育,且上游流域要比下游河道平缓,水系的相对落差更低,发育更成熟,表明上游河道形成时间早于下游河道。临潭—宕昌断裂带的逆冲隆升作用是造成洮河上、下游水系形态差异的主要原因。岷县东侧山脉的快速隆起致使古洮河被截断,之后被东北侧河流溯源侵蚀,切穿西秦岭北缘构造带,进行河流袭夺,从而形成了现今的洮河。最后探讨了对青藏高原东北端晚新生代以来的构造响应。     

空间分辨率与取样方式对DEM流域特征提取的影响

随着数字水文的兴起和分布式水文模型研究的发展, 利用DEM提取水文特征, 进而进行水文模拟的方法越来越广泛地为水文学者所采用. 空间分辨率的改变与DEM重新取样方式对水文模拟都会产生重要影响. 采取不同取样方法获得多种尺度的DEM, 对不同分辨率下的流域特征值进行了统计分析与比较, 引入熵的概念度量不同分辨率的DEM包含的信息量, 以及不同取样方式对信息量的影响. 并计算了以50 m DEM所包含的信息量为基准, 在不同的信息损失下所要求的最低分辨率.     

Scale of relief growth in the forearc of the Andes of Northern Chile (Arica latitude, 18°S)

The stream profiles of rivers of northern Chile reveal two graded segments separated by 20‐km‐long knickzones. Their formation was initiated in the Late Miocene in response to surface uplift of the western flank of the Altiplano. This phase of uplift that was coeval with the shift of deformation from the Altiplano to the sub‐Andean zone caused relief to grow at the scale of the whole drainage basin. Above and beneath these knickzones, the presence of braided channels and the absence of erosion on adjacent pediplains suggest no substantial modification in the local relief. The knickzones, however, show bedrock channels, and fluvial dissection rates have exceeded erosion rates on adjacent pediplains by two orders of magnitudes. Hence, the data imply that the only geomorphic recorders of relief growth are the knickzones that currently transpose the effects of the Late Miocene phase of surface uplift from the coast to the Altiplano.