Five decades of neighborhood classifications and their transitions: A comparison of four US cities, 1970–2010

This paper examines 50-year spatio-temporal trajectories of neighborhoods (Census Tracts) for four cities discerned by their population growth trends and spatial patterns of growth: Buffalo, New York; Charlotte, North Carolina; Chicago, Illinois; and Portland, Oregon. Using five decades of Census data from 1970 to 2010, a clustering procedure is used to establish five classes of neighborhoods: Suburban, Stability, Blue Collar, Struggling, and New Starts. The transitions and sequences of neighborhoods through these groups are compared, revealing marked differences in the dynamics of neighborhoods according by city. Findings show that while Struggling neighborhoods, characterized largely by high poverty and unemployment levels, were very unlikely to transition out of this group over the course of 50 years in the cities of Buffalo, Charlotte, and Chicago, nearly half Portland's struggling neighborhoods transitioned to a neighborhood of higher socioeconomic status during that time period. The types of neighborhoods that exhibited signs of gentrification also varied according to city. The variability of neighborhood trajectories was greatest for the rapidly growing cities of Charlotte and Portland while neighborhoods in Buffalo and Chicago tended to follow a more predicable downgrading process.     

GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXT AND CONCENTRATED URBAN POVERTY WITHIN THE UNITED STATES

Responding to previous analyses that assume that places are passive recipients of the various macro-level social phenomena associated with concentrated urban poverty, I hypothesize that concentrated urban poverty takes on different forms in different places as a result of how macro-level social phenomena are mediated by locally specific structures. To investigate how concentrated urban poverty takes on different forms in different places, I first decompose the poverty rates of all high-poverty urban neighborhoods in the United States into their race-specific rate and composition effects, and classify high-poverty neighborhoods based on these decomposition values. The results of the analysis demonstrate that poverty in a majority of the high-poverty neighborhoods in the United States is undoubtedly affected by geographically specific processes. For example, within one set of high-poverty neighborhoods, poverty is associated with both the lack of economic opportunity and high rates of class-based residential segregation within mixed-race immigrant ethnic/immigrant enclaves in large gateway cities. A second set of high-poverty neighborhoods, located in the metropolitan areas of the southern United States, has high rates of poverty because of the residential segregation and geographic concentration of poverty-prone African Americans. And lastly, among a third set of tracts, poverty experiences in African American ghettos are linked to declining economic and social opportunities and class-based residential segregation within large manufacturing cities. A set of recommendations for additional research includes addressing how one-size-fits-all anti-poverty public policies should be modified for the specific needs of each type of high-poverty neighborhood. [Key words: context, poverty, segregation, employment, race, ethnicity.]     

居住迁移背景下邻里环境对幸福感的影响——不同生命历程阶段的差异

邻里作为城市居民基本的日常生活空间,对人们的生活有着重要的影响.尤其是近年来随着居住迁移的普遍发生,邻里环境与居民幸福感关系更加复杂.人们对邻里环境的偏好和选择受到所处生命历程阶段的影响,但目前鲜有研究探讨不同生命历程阶段的邻里环境和幸福感之间的关系.论文基于广州市的调查问卷数据,选取在不同生命历程阶段有居住迁移行为的...     

苏州老城区衰退邻里居住满意度及影响因素

转型时期中国社会经济经历了巨大转型,居住分异加剧,新城市贫困现象在特定人群和空间集聚,老城衰退邻里就是其中之一。通过对苏州老城区6个典型社区的调查,发现老城区居民居住满意度存在环境类型、空间类型、更新类型和人群分异。居住满意度主要受住房条件、社区环境、配套设施和社会网络影响,其中城市历史社会空间结构奠定了城市环境质量的总体格局,具体设施条件受建成时间、维护水平、人口密度和更新机会的影响;城市更新、原住民比例下降和外来人口迁入导致的人口置换过程破坏了原本良好的社会网络,降低了居住满意度,减少了脱贫机会。从微观社区尺度研究老城衰退邻里的居住满意度及影响因素,不仅能加深对新城市贫困现象的理解,也有利于未来有针对性地制定城市更新规划和扶贫策略。     

Living austerity urbanism: space–time expansion and deepening socio-spatial inequalities for disadvantaged urban youth in Ireland

After the 2008 financial crisis, Ireland implemented a severe austerity program which drastically reshaped the opportunities and constraints experienced by youth living in disadvantaged urban neighborhoods. Rising unemployment, reduced social welfare, and funding cuts for support organizations limited the opportunities of urban life for disadvantaged youth. This article uses the experience of austerity urbanism of young adults from Ballymun (Dublin) and Knocknaheeny (Cork), both among the most disadvantaged neighborhoods of their cities, to argue that austerity, through time-space expansion, removes services, facilities and opportunities from deprived urban neighborhoods, thus reinforcing and intensifying socio-spatial inequalities. In an effort to bring State finances under control and to revitalize the economy the whole urban fabric, and the urban population, is managed for the purpose of economic recovery. Urban life becomes restricted as disadvantaged urban youth becomes socially and spatially excluded from vital urban opportunities and amenities.     

Poverty, migration and sex work: youth transitions in Ethiopia

Despite an emerging body of work on youth transitions, research has yet to explore the often unconventional routes to adulthood for young people marginalised through poverty. By drawing on interviews with 60 young commercial sex workers in Ethiopia, this paper explores the connections between poverty, migration and sex work and demonstrates that sex work provides a risky alternative, but often successful, path to independence for some rural–urban migrants. The paper concludes by offering recommendations for policies that seek to support young sex workers by enabling them to maintain their independence while seeking different employment.     

An Epidemiology of Neighborhood Poverty: Causal Factors of Infant Mortality Among Blacks and Whites in the Metropolitan United States*

Despite overall declines in infant mortality over the past few decades, racial disparities between blacks and whites have persisted in the United States. This article considers the argument that racial differences in infant mortality are partially the result of the disproportionate concentration of blacks within extremely poor neighborhoods relative to whites. Using race‐specific measures of neighborhood‐level poverty, combined with metropolitan‐wide measures of infant mortality, it was determined that trends in infant mortality for both blacks and whites reflect the impact of an intergenerational effect associated with prolonged exposure to extremely poor neighborhoods. Racial disparities in infant mortality in the early 1980s can be accounted for by black – white differences in neighborhood poverty exposure. Results suggest, however, that black infant mortality during the early 1990s was much more strongly influenced by high‐risk natality behaviors among black women than by economic status or neighborhood influences.     

Residential Burglaries and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Context in London,Ontario: Global and Local Regression Analysis*

The main aim of this article is to analyze the relationships between the spatial patterns of residential burglaries and the socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods in London, Ontario. Relative risk ratios are applied as a measure of the intensity of residential burglary. The variation in the risks of burglary is modeled as a function of contextual neighborhood variables. Following a conventional (global) regression analysis, spatial variations in the relationships are examined using geographically weighted regression (GWR). The GWR results show that there are significant local variations in the relationships between the risk of residential burglary victimization and the average value of dwellings and percentage of the population in multifamily housing. The results are discussed in the context of four hypotheses, which may explain geographical variations in residential burglary. The practical implication of the GWR analysis is that different crime prevention policies should be implemented in different neighborhoods of the city.     

An unexpected geography of opportunity in the wake of the foreclosure crisis: low-income renters in investor-purchased foreclosures in Phoenix,Arizona

During the recent United States foreclosure crisis, investors purchased and leased thousands of homes nationwide, opening up formerly owner-occupied neighborhoods to renters. Yet, little is known about how this process affected regional patterns of residential segregation and inequality. In this study, we combine property-level data on real estate transactions and subsidized housing vouchers from 2004 to 2014 to assess whether the conversion of foreclosures to rentals enabled low-income renters to live in more advantaged neighborhoods in Phoenix, Arizona. Renters with vouchers living in investor-purchased foreclosures were in lower-poverty neighborhoods compared with those not living in investor-purchased foreclosures. This suggests that foreclosure sales may have widened the geography of opportunity for low-income renters with subsidized housing.     

Residential Mobility of the Poor and the Growth of Poverty in Inner-Ring Suburbs

This study builds on recent research on the growth of suburban poverty by tracking bi-annual poverty trends in inner suburbs from 1989 to 2005 through data reported by the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Contrary to analyses based on the 1990 and 2000 censuses, this research finds that inner-ring suburban poverty increased from 1989 through 1997 but then declined and stabilized at levels similar to those of 1989. It will be shown that most of these changes were driven by transitions into and out of poverty, and that the migration of the poor between central-city and suburban neighborhoods has little effect on poverty rates. These results suggest that such poverty is highly dependent upon economic conditions, which may indicate an increase in inner-ring poverty since 2005.     

The Urban Settlement Patterns of Disadvantaged Migrants

Abstract

Disadvantaged migrants to metropolitan areas are segregated by race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status within the residential areas of central city poverty neighborhoods. Whereas black migrants are generally restricted to ghetto space, regional cultural similarities and feedback in the social communication network are important to the residential location of lower class whites. The urban settlement patterns of a sample of recent disadvantaged white migrants to Indianapolis, Indiana, vary from the clusters of migrants from Appalachia and the South to the more dispersed pattern of migrants from Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio, and other metropolitan areas. The residential location of migrants from Appalachia and the South is geographically restricted by cultural constraints, and heavy reliance upon a limited network of friends and relatives in the housing search. However, the sociocultural resources of the Midwest group and the previous urban experience of metropolitan migrants increase the range of housing opportunities in Indianapolis that are available and known to them.     

基于共享度的上海郊区社区居民活动空间隔离及其影响因素

在流动性不断增强与居民活动模式日益多样化的背景下,城市社会空间分异与隔离的内涵不断扩展,居民在日常生活中面临的空间隔离受到关注。以活动空间为基础的社会空间分异研究快速兴起,以期从更加动态的视角理解城市社会空间。基于上海市郊区问卷调查数据,构建活动空间共享度指标,建立个体尺度的活动空间分异指数和孤立指数,刻画社区内不同收入群体的活动空间隔离状况,并建立活动空间共享度的多层模型分析活动空间隔离的影响因素。研究发现居住在同一社区的不同收入居民之间存在活动空间隔离,居民更愿意与其社会经济属性相似的人共享活动空间。活动空间隔离程度受到个体社会经济属性、社区设施状况、社区周边环境、社区人口密度和社会混合程度等因素的影响,居住在人口密度高、社会混合度高、社区商业配置良好、公共空间充足的开放社区能提高居民的活动空间共享度,增加不同群体社会接触的可能性。     

A Review of “Business Site Selection,Location Analysis and GIS”

This study seeks to examine the relationship between childhood exposure to air pollution and long-term respiratory health and to identify significant predictors of respiratory health in adulthood. Logistic regression modeling was undertaken using health and exposure data for 395 participants who resided during childhood in four distinct neighborhoods in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Significant predictors include exposure to SO₂ in childhood, location of residence in childhood, sex, residential and occupational histories, stressful life events, and respiratory health in childhood. This study suggests that the health impacts of childhood exposure to air pollution are located beyond the short-term period that most research addresses.     

基于计划行为理论的城市居住分异对居民健康活动的影响研究

虽然国内外大量研究探讨了居住环境与健康关系,但较少将城市地理学与社会心理学结合,从理性行为角度分析居住环境对居民身体活动的影响机制。论文引入计划行为理论的分析框架,以中国居住空间分异的特殊性为切入点,以南京为实证对象,运用结构方程模型解析居民态度、主观规范、知觉行为控制和行为意向对居民身体活动的影响路径。结果表明：传统社区、单位社区、保障房社区、城中村和商品房小区的居民社会经济特征和健康活动存在明显差异。影响居民健身意向和健身活动的最重要因素为知觉健身行为控制强度感知。消减居民健身的主观限制,包括为其提供健身设备、公共健身资源和对健身进行补贴,可提升其健身活动水平。研究结果可为通过改善建成环境进行健康行为的主动干预提供对策建议。     

Changing patterns of residential and workplace segregation in the Stockholm metropolitan area

Immigrant–native segregation is present in the spaces in which individuals from different ethnic/racial groups practice their everyday lives; interact with others and develop their ethnic, social and spatial networks. The overwhelming majority of academic research on immigrant segregation has focused on the residential domain, thus largely overlooking other arenas of daily interaction. The present study contributes to the emerging literature on immigrant residential and workplace segregation by examining changes in patterns of residential and workplace segregation over time. We draw our data from the Stockholm metropolitan region, Sweden’s main port of entry for immigrants. The results suggest a close association between residential and workplace segregation. Immigrant groups that are more segregated at home are also more segregated in workplace neighborhoods. More importantly, we found that a changing segregation level in one domain tends to involve a similar trend in the other domain.     

THE SPREAD OF CHANGE IN METROPOLITAN AND NONMETROPOLITAN GROWTH IN THE UNITED STATES, 1940–1976

This article explores the historical, economic, and social factors that shape the recent migration of middle-class Blacks to low-income, urban, Black neighborhoods. It focuses on the meanings associated with this pattern of Black gentrification and the extent to which this residential pattern is consistent with previous models of urban gentrification. Using three years of ethnographic data from a low-income neighborhood in Philadelphia that has experienced an increase in Black middle-class residents, I conclude that this pattern of neighborhood change is distinct from previous models of urban gentrification. In this article, I argue that Black gentrification represents a unique set of opportunities and constraints that produce a group of middleclass African Americans willing to invest their social, economic, and cultural capital into improving the quality of life for low-income Black neighborhoods and their residents.     

Access to supermarkets among poorer neighborhoods: a comparison of time and distance measures

This research assesses neighborhood differences in access to supermarkets for the Portland, Oregon region. Five-year American Community Survey data for the 2006–2010 period are used to compare a travel time and distance measure of supermarket access for neighborhoods of concentrated poverty relative to other neighborhoods, taking into account their distance to the city center. Poor and nonpoor outer neighborhoods have longer average travel times and distances to nearby supermarkets than their more centralized counterparts. Poor outer neighborhoods fare better on travel distance than nonpoor outer neighborhoods do, but endure penalties in longer travel times. This research demonstrates the potential for variation in results across methods measuring access to neighborhood amenities and suggests that more nuanced methodology will be required for us to understand sociospatial disparities in access.     

Crime in Urban Post-Disaster Environments: A Methodological Framework from New Orleans

This paper considers the interrelationship between residential occupancy status, blight, and crime. An analytical frame is provided for a fine-scale analysis that is sufficiently flexible to capture both spatial and temporal dynamism in field-collected data. Unlike other works linking crime to evidence of disorder within neighborhoods, this paper considers this relationship in terms of neighborhoods affected by an external event (natural disaster), which results in more dynamic spatial and temporal patterns as the neighborhood is in a state of flux. As a result, new means of data collection and analysis are required, as any fine-scale relationship is longitudinal as well as cross sectional. The focus here is on the interrelationship of post-disaster residential occupancy, building conditions, and crime incidence for the Holy Cross neighborhood of New Orleans as it recovers from Hurricane Katrina. Results suggest that crime is inversely related to the amount of activity on a recovering street.     

Social mix revisited: within- and across-neighborhood ties between ethnic minorities of differing socioeconomic backgrounds

Creating social mix in neighborhoods has been an important urban policy during the past years. The aim is the development of category-crossing ties between the middle and lower classes. However, studies found little evidence of such ties. This paper identifies two reasons why this might be the case. First, studies usually analyze the resource flow from native middle classes to disadvantaged residents. Second, the resource flow is analyzed within one neighborhood only. Based on interviews and network analysis with second generation, upwardly mobile Turkish-Germans in Berlin, I show that they act as cultural and language brokers, benefiting lower class co-ethnics. They provide exactly the information and resources to people with a lower class background that are envisioned by social mixing programs. Moreover, the resource flow occurs within but also across neighborhoods, whereby ‘second neighborhoods’ such as the previous neighborhood or the neighborhood where the workplace is located are particularly important.     

转型期城市低收入邻里的类型、特征和产生机制:以南京市为例

本文以南京市为例,检查转型期城市贫困人口的空间分布特征,并着重分析贫困人口集中的低收入邻里的类型、特征及其产生机制。研究表明,转型期我国城市贫困人口的空间分布表现为在邻里或社区层面上的集中。城市贫困人口在邻里层次上的集聚,导致三种类型低收入邻里的产生,包括老城衰退邻里、退化的工人新村和农民工集聚区(城中村)。分析表明,这些低收入邻里的产生源于国家导向的城市发展政策和国家福利住房供应制度,并在住房市场化和房地产导向的城市发展过程中得以强化。基于南京市的实证分析和实地调查,城市贫困人口的空间分布状况和低收入邻里的特征被检查,低收入邻里的产生机制得以验证。