黄河口凹陷莱北斜坡带玄武岩发育区砂岩成岩特征、孔隙流体及储层控制因素

为探究黄河口凹陷研究区玄武岩喷发对相关砂岩储层成岩作用的影响,从粘土矿物、沸石及微量元素分析入手,明确莱北斜坡带古近系不同层位孔隙流体性质变化,建立火成岩发育区砂岩储层的成岩-孔隙演化模式：沙一段和沙二段沉积时期,受小规模玄武岩喷发与干旱-半干旱气候条件下碱性水介质影响,砂岩中钠长石化和碳酸盐岩胶结普遍,碎屑颗粒表面发育白云石膜,见石英溶蚀现象;东三段三角洲砂岩储层受沙一段暗色泥岩中析出的卤水及陆源淡水输入影响,叠加后期富铁镁质孔隙水混合影响,成岩作用以弱碱性水介质条件下沸石溶解、粘土矿物转化与钠长石化为主;东一段和东二段沉积时期玄武岩广泛发育,不稳定富铁镁矿物的强烈水解,导致孔隙流体富含铁镁质,以低硅沸石的沉淀与溶蚀为特色。与玄武岩喷发相关的局部沸石沉淀与溶解以及玄武岩喷发形成的“工字型”构架对东营组砂岩孔隙的保存有利;而沙一段和沙二段沉积时期碱性水介质下形成的栉壳状白云石抑制了石英的次生加大,碱性水介质下的石英溶蚀现象普遍,有利于其砂岩孔隙的保存。     

陕北延长组成岩圈闭油藏的形成及其重要意义

陕甘宁盆地南部陕北地区的上三叠统延长组,是一套湖盆三角洲体系的碎屑岩沉积。延长组油气资源丰富,但砂体储油物性极差。近期研究发现了一些富含浊沸石胶结物的砂体中,由于浊沸石胶结物的溶蚀而形成的渗透性砂岩,以及浊沸石胶结物再沉淀而成的成岩致密带和压溶嵌合作用形成的致密带。砂体溶蚀带与上倾方向的致密带配套,构成了大型成岩圈闭油藏,并已在此类油藏中探明了可观的石油储量和生成了多量石油。     

储层成岩产物对于油气运移的指示意义——以塔里木盆地群苦恰克构造带东河塘组为例

泥盆系东河塘组下段砂岩储层是塔里木盆地群苦恰克构造带内重要的勘探层系,有关储层内油气充注方向与富集规律的研究目前仍未有统一认识。研究层段内碳酸盐胶结物(主要为白云石和铁白云石胶结物)分布较为广泛,其中作为早成岩阶段产物的白云石胶结物的含量在平面上呈现出自东向西依次增加的趋势; 而铁白云石胶结物则以交代先期形成白云石胶结物的形式产出于中成岩阶段,略滞后于储层内的油气充注,其胶结程度在平面上呈现出自东向西依次减弱的分布规律。铁白云石胶结物作为反映储层内较强还原环境的指示性矿物,其在储层内的分布规律也承担着判明油气运移方向或富集规律的"责任",而其上述分布规律为研究区储层内油气自东向西充注提供了全新的判定依据。     

莱州湾凹陷北洼沙三段砂岩碳酸盐胶结物特征及地质意义

碳酸盐胶结特征不仅反映了成岩环境,而且可表明成岩阶段及其对储层质量的影响。综合运用岩石学、矿物学和地球化学等方法,对莱州湾凹陷北洼古近系沙三段砂岩中碳酸盐胶结物的分布规律、形成环境、物质来源、沉淀温度以及其对储层物性的影响进行了系统研究。结果表明：沙三段发育两期碳酸盐胶结物,分别为形成于埋藏早期的菱铁矿和隐晶方解石,以及成岩作用中后期形成的方解石、白云石、铁方解石和铁白云石,其中方解石是最主要的胶结物类型。碳酸盐胶结物形成于埋藏作用中后期的高盐度流体环境,与有机质脱羧作用相关,有机碳是最主要的碳来源,Ca2+是长石的溶蚀和粘土矿物转化的产物。包裹体均一温度研究结果表明,碳酸盐胶结物在油气充注的同时或之后形成。形成于成岩作用早期的碳酸盐胶结物在一定程度上增强了岩石骨架颗粒固结和抗压实能力,同时也是后期有机酸溶蚀的主要对象,对储层物性起到促进作用;溶蚀作用之后形成的碳酸盐胶结物占据粒间孔隙和部分溶蚀孔隙,对储层物性起到破坏作用。     

深部埋藏条件下砂岩中碳酸盐胶结物的成因及储层改造——以济阳坳陷始新统孔店组为例

济阳坳陷始新统孔店组深部碎屑岩中普遍发育碳酸盐胶结物。依据普通薄片、扫描电镜、X衍射、阴极发光、流体包裹体测温和碳氧同位素等实验结果,对济阳坳陷始新统孔店组深部砂岩中的碳酸盐胶结物进行了深入研究。结果表明:碳酸盐胶结物类型有方解石、铁方解石、铁白云石和菱铁矿等,胶结方式有早期基底式胶结、成岩期点状胶结、成岩后期裂缝充填,胶结物的纵向上和横向上分布具有一定的规律性;早期基底式胶结主要形成于原始沉积水介质的化学沉积分异作用,这种沉积分异作用主要发生在湖盆沉积的同生期,由于化学物质的饱和度分异造成;成岩期胶结物主要跟成岩演化过程中流体的自由流动、粘土矿物转化、有机质的演化和地质环境的变化有关,断裂构造活动形成的深部热液也是形成部分碳酸盐胶结物的主要原因;碳酸盐胶结物对储层具有明显的改造作用,早期基底式胶结沉淀作用对岩石储层具有强烈胶结作用和抗压实作用,成岩期碳酸盐的沉淀作用对储层空间具有明显的堵塞作用,成岩过程中的碳酸盐矿物的溶解作用提高了深部地层的储层质量。     

酒东坳陷下白垩统砂岩中碳酸盐胶结物特征与储层物性

碳酸盐胶结物是酒东坳陷下白垩统砂岩内一种重要的自生矿物,其对深部储层储层质量有着重要影响。本文通过薄片观察、扫描电镜、能谱分析及碳氧同位素分析,认为碳酸盐胶结物主要为铁方解石、白云石和铁白云石,并且以后者为主,其分布具有不均一性且分带性明显。碳酸盐胶结物均为成岩作用后期产生,形成该矿物所需的物质主要来源于泥岩的黏土矿物...     

东营凹陷中央隆起带沙河街组碳酸盐胶结物发育特征及其形成机制

碳酸盐胶结物是东营凹陷中央隆起带砂岩储层中重要的自生矿物,但其形成机制目前尚无深入研究.首先在岩相观察下针对东营凹陷中央隆起带沙河街组的碳酸盐胶结物进行期次划分并归纳其发育特征,再依据各期碳酸盐胶结物的共生矿物、碳氧同位素组成、流体包裹体温度、元素化学成分等信息对其形成机制进行研究.研究结果表明:研究区碳酸盐胶结物的碳不仅受到有机质成熟过程中排放的有机酸的影响,还受到沙四段沉积的湖相碳酸盐岩溶解的影响.研究区沙河街组主要发育四期碳酸盐胶结物:第一期碳酸盐胶结物以白云石为主,其形成过程与甲烷细菌对有机质的分解作用有关;第二期碳酸盐胶结物以方解石为主,与第一期碳酸盐胶结物之间夹有一层绿泥石薄膜,胶结物的形成与孔隙流体的浓缩导致的Ca、HCO₃-过饱和现象相关;第三期碳酸盐胶结物主要为方解石、白云石和铁白云石,以充填长石溶孔和原生孔隙为特征,其物质来源于长石的溶蚀及泥岩的脱水作用;第四期碳酸盐胶结物多为铁方解石和铁白云石,以充填早期碳酸盐溶蚀后形成的次生孔隙为特征,物质来源于粘土矿物的转化,多与黄铁矿颗粒共生,其形成过程受到烃类流体活动的影响.      

国外储油砂岩作用研究动向

1.物源区和沉积相对成岩作用的控制:原始沉积特征是成岩变化的依据,物源区和沉积环境是影响沉积特征的最主要因素。原始沉积物的各种组分,包括他生的和自生的有机及无机组分、组构、孔隙性及隙间流体的各种特征,都会对成岩作用发生深刻的影响。Williams研究过沉积相和物源区对美国怀俄明州下第三系绿河组陆相矿物砂岩成岩作用的控制。绿河组中有由三个不同物源区和两种常见沉积环境中形成的同期砂岩。河流相石英砂岩被早期的方解石胶结,次生孔隙发育好。边缘湖相石英砂岩被方解石和铁白云石胶结。由泥晶胶结的     

中国西部地区方沸石胶结相与碎屑岩次生优质储集层形成机制

含油气盆地碎屑岩次生优质储集层的发育,除了与广泛发育的方解石胶结相有关外,在中国西部还有一类与沸石族自生矿物胶结的成岩相有关,其中以溶蚀方沸石胶结相形成的次生优质储集层与油气聚集成藏又有十分密切的关联。经实例分析:与自生方沸石胶结有关的成岩相主要受控于扇(辫状河)三角洲前缘相带、火山岩物源和成岩早期的碱性环境;次生优质储集层的形成在时间上主要处于成岩中期A阶段,在空间上受控于邻近的烃源岩、圈闭和输导体的沟通。方沸石矿物在物理性质上具有抗压易溶(有机酸)作用,较其他常见的自生矿物(胶结物)相对优越,就方沸石易于溶蚀的特点而言是较为理想的自生矿物(胶结物)。其溶蚀对孔隙度的贡献率在50％～75％之间,发育几率占绝对优势。所以,在方沸石发育的相带中寻找以粒间溶蚀孔为主的优质储集层,具有可靠的操作性和现实性。     

库车凹陷克拉2气田储层成岩作用和油气充注特征

克拉2气田是中国陆上勘探已知最大的天然气气田,下白垩系巴什基奇克组砂岩是其主力储层.为了揭示本区储层成岩作用和油气充注之间的成因联系,综合应用偏光显微镜、阴极发光显微镜、扫描电镜、CT扫描三维重构、X-射线衍射、荧光光谱、显微测温和激光拉曼等技术手段研究了克拉2气田储层的成岩作用和油气充注期次及特征,并且探讨了油气充注对成岩作用的影响.研究结果显示:本区的成岩矿物组合为石英次生加大边、方解石、白云石,铁白云石,微晶石英和自生高岭石.发育3期油气充注:第1期为低温高盐度的低成熟油气流体,以记录在石英愈合裂隙、长石解理和方解石胶结物中的黄褐色荧光包裹体为代表,充注时间为18 Ma;第2期为高温高盐度的高成熟油气流体,以记录在石英愈合裂隙和白云石胶结物中的黄白-蓝白色荧光包裹体为代表,充注时间为6 Ma;第3期为高温低盐度的天然气充注,以记录在石英愈合裂隙和铁白云石胶结物中的无荧光气烃包裹体为代表,充注时间4 Ma.本区储层中自生高岭石、微晶石英和储层沥青是晚期天然气充注对储层改造的结果.      

塔里木盆地西北缘石炭系砂岩成岩作用研究

本文是在薄片研究基础上,并使用阴极发光显微镜、扫描电镜、X射线衍射分析以及氧碳同位素分析资料详细研究了塔里木盆地西北缘石炭系砂岩的机械压实,压溶.胶结等主要成岩作用.并应用镜质体反射率、孢粉颜色及伊利石开形指数的测定等方法推断石炭系砂岩所经历的最高成岩温度为120℃-200℃.并且根据成岩作用和成岩温度的研究,对砂岩所处的成岩阶段位置及其成岩历史和孔隙演化特点进行了分析.     

Using strain birefringence in diamond to estimate the remnant pressure on an inclusion

Abstract

The Upper Triassic Chang 8 Member, the eighth member of the Yanchang Formation, is a key reservoir interval in the Jiyuan area of the Ordos Basin. The reservoir quality of the Chang 8 Member tight sandstones is extremely heterogeneous owing to the widespread distribution of carbonate cements. The carbonate cements commonly develop near sandstone–mudstone interfaces and gradually decrease away from the interfaces to the centres of the sand bodies. However, the content of carbonate cements (≤6%) has a positive correlation with the visual porosity in the Chang 8 Member sandstone, revealing that the carbonate cements contribute to the compaction resistance and the residual primary pores of reservoirs during the diagenetic process. Three main types of carbonate cement are identified: type I (calcite), type II (calcite and ferrocalcite), and type III (dolomite and ankerite). The type I calcite is characterised by enriched δ¹³C (mean –3.41‰) and δ¹⁸O (mean –15.17‰) values compared with the type II (mean δ¹³C?=?–7.33‰, δ¹⁸O?=?–18.90‰) and type III (mean δ¹³C?=?–10.0‰, δ¹⁸O?=?–20.2‰) cements. Furthermore, the mean δ¹⁸O value (–4.7‰) of the type I pore fluids is 1.5‰ and 0.9‰ lower than the type II (mean –3.2‰) and type III (mean –3.8‰) pore fluids, respectively. This indicates that the evolving pore fluids experienced some relative strong water–rock interactions that provided the original materials (e.g. Ca²⁺, Fe³⁺, and Mg²⁺) for the carbonate cements during the diagenetic process. The highly saline lake water directly provided the primary material for the type I calcite precipitation, which also provided the material necessary for the precipitation of the type II and type III carbonate cements, causing enriched δ¹⁸O values of the pore fluids during the precipitation of the type II and type III carbonate cements. Although the earlier dissolved pores were filled with ferrocalcite, dolomite and ankerite in the middle–late diagenetic stages, some residual pores and fractures remained to become the potential reservoir storage spaces for the oil and gas exploration in the Jiyuan area.     

Origin and diagenetic evolution of Ca–Mg–Fe carbonates in some coalfields of Japan

Carbonate concretions, lenses and bands in the Pleistocene, Palaeogene and Upper Triassic coalfields of Japan consist of various carbonate minerals with varied chemical compositions. Authigenic carbonates in freshwater sediments are siderite > calcite > ankerite > dolomite >> ferroan magnesite; in brackish water to marine sediments in the coal measures, calcite > dolomite > ankerite > siderite >> ferroan magnesite; and in the overlying marine deposits, calcite > dolomite >> siderite. Most carbonates were formed progressively during burial within a range of depths between the sediment-water interface and approximately 3 km. The mineral species and the chemical composition of the carbonates are controlled primarily by the initial sedimentary facies of the host sediments and secondarily by the diagenetic evolution of pore water during burial. Based on the regular sequence and burial depth of precipitation of authigenic carbonates in a specific sedimentary facies, three diagenetic stages of carbonates are proposed. Carbonates formed during Stage I (< 500 m) strongly reflect the initial sedimentary facies, e.g. low Ca-Mg siderite in freshwater sediments which are initially rich in iron derived from lateritic soil on the nearby landmass, and Mg calcite and dolomite in brackish-marine sediments whose pore waters abound in Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ originating in seawater and calcareous shells. Carbonates formed during Stage II (500–2000 m) include high Ca-Mg siderite, ankerite, Fe dolomite and Fe–Mg calcite in freshwater sediments. The assemblage of Stage II carbonates in brackish-marine sediments in the coal measures is similar to that in freshwater sediments. This suggests similar diagenetic environments owing to an effective migration and mixing of pore water due to the compaction of host sediments. Carbonates formed during Stage III (> 2000 m) are Fe calcite and extremely high Ca-Mg siderite; the latter is exclusively in marine mudstones. The supply of Ca is partly from the alteration of silicates in the sediments at elevated burial temperatures. After uplift, calcite with low Mg content precipitates from percolating groundwater and fills extensional cracks.     

Rock composition and origin of the Duwi Formation calcareous rocks, Upper Egypt

Upper Cretaceous phosphorite beds of the Duwi Formation, Upper Egypt, are intercalated with limestone, sandy limestone, marl, calcareous shales, and calcareous sandstone. Calcareous intercalations were subjected to field and detailed petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical investigations in order to constrain their rock composition and origin. Mineralogically, dolomite, calcite, quartz, francolite and feldspars are the non-clay minerals. Smectite, kaolinite and illite represent the clay minerals. Major and trace elements can be classified as the detrital and carbonate fractions based on their sources. The detrital fraction includes the elements that are derived from detrital sources, mainly clay minerals and quartz, such as Si, Al, Fe, Ti, K, Ba, V, Ni, Co, Cr, Zn, Cu, Zr, and Mo. The carbonate fraction includes the elements that are derived from carbonates, maily calcite and dolomite, such as Ca, Mg and Sr. Dolomite occurs as being dense, uniform, mosaic, very fine-to-fine, non-ferroan, and non-stoichiometrical, suggesting its early diagenetic formation in a near-shore oxidizing shallow marine environment. The close association and positive correlation between dolomite and smectite indicates the role of clay minerals in the formation of dolomite as a source of Mg^2＋ -rich solutions. Calcareous rocks were deposited in marine, oxidizing and weakly alkaline conditions, marking a semi-arid climatic period. The calcareous/argillaceous alternations are due to oscillations in clay/carbonate ratio.     

鄂尔多斯盆地陇东地区延长组砂岩成岩作用及孔隙演化

大量岩石薄片、孔隙铸体薄片、扫描电镜与X衍射以及常规物性等分析资料研究表明,鄂尔多斯盆地陇东地区三叠系延长组砂岩主要为成分成熟度及结构成熟度较低的长石质岩屑砂岩、岩屑砂岩和长石砂岩。优质储层主要发育于粗粒富含刚性颗粒的砂岩中,这类砂岩在埋藏过程中由于早期快速埋藏加之泥岩、板岩及千枚岩岩屑含量高,经历了强烈的压实作用,使其由原始孔隙度大约为39%降低至18.5%;此后发生石英颗粒次生加大及绿泥石胶结,使孔隙有一定程度的损失(大约3.5%);紧随其后的是方解石及白云石碳酸盐胶结,损失孔隙度5%;后来出现碳酸盐胶结物与长石及岩屑的溶蚀作用,新增加孔隙度4％～8%,最晚期的是含铁方解石和含铁白云石胶结充注溶蚀孔隙和部分原生孔隙。     

Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of Miocene pelitic sedimentary rocks from the south-western part of the Pannonian Basin System (Croatia): Implications for provenance studies

Fifty-two samples of Miocene pelitic sedimentary rock from outcrops on Medvednica,Moslavacka Gora and Psunj Mts.,and boreholes in the Sava Depression and the Pozega Sub-depression were investigated.These sediments formed in different marine(with normal and reduced salinity),brackish,and freshwater environments,depending on the development stage of the Pannonian Basin System.Carbonate minerals,clay minerals and quartz are the main constituents of all pelitic sedimentary rocks,except in those from Moslavacka Gora Mt in which carbonate minerals are not present.Feldspars,pyrite,opal-CT,and hematite are present as minor constituents in some rocks.Besides calcite,dependent on the sedimentary environment and diagenetic changes,high-magnesium calcite,aragonite,dolomite and ankerite/Cadolomite are also present.Smectite or illite-smectite is the main clay minerals in the samples.Minor constituents,present in almost all samples,are detrital illite and kaolinite.In some samples chlorite is also present in a low amount.Major elements,trace elements and rare earth elements patterns used in provenance analysis show that all analysed samples have a composition similar to the values of the upper continental crust(UCC).The contents of major and trace elements as well as SiO_2/Al_2O_3,K_2O/Al_2O_3,Na_2O/K_2O,Eu/Eu~*,La/Sc,Th/Sc,La/Co Th/Co,Th/Cr,Ce/Ce~* and LREE/HREE ratios,show that the analysed pelitic sedimentary rocks were formed by weathering of different types of mostly acidic(silicic),i.e.felsic rocks.     

东营凹陷古近系砂岩透镜体钙质界壳形成机理及其对油气成藏的影响

砂岩透镜体 / 泥岩接触带钙质界壳是含油气盆地泥岩（烃源岩）－流体（油、气、水）－砂岩（储集岩）相互作用过程中的产物。烃源岩－地层水相互作用生成的有机酸促使烃源岩中矿物、特别是碳酸盐矿物的溶解。烃源岩中生成的烃类流体和地层水，在驱动力的作用下，向临近的砂岩透镜体内运移，同时携带含碳酸盐的有机酸一起运移。烃源岩－水溶液作用后的流体重新进入到一个新的储集岩，在新的物理化学环境中要与储集岩再次发生作用。流体与储集岩作用的直接结果是方解石和白云石沉淀到储集岩中，它们将占有原岩的部分孔隙空间，形成胶结物，进而形成钙质界壳。这样形成的碳酸盐胶结物为晚期胶结物，主要为含铁方解石和铁白云石。砂岩透镜体碳酸盐胶结物含量与孔隙度、渗透率和含油饱和度存在很好的负相关性。钙质界壳的存在使得孔隙结构也发生变化：原生孔隙被碳酸盐胶结物充填，发育的次生孔隙是碳酸盐胶结物的晶间和晶内微孔隙；压汞曲线较陡，排驱压力和中值压力高；喉道偏细，分选较差。东营凹陷牛35井沙三中段2 939 ～3 003 m井段6个主要砂层组的精细解剖表明，砂岩透镜体 / 泥岩接触带钙质界壳是控制砂岩透镜体成藏的重要因素。     

海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷火山碎屑岩自生碳酸盐矿物分布及对储层物性的影响

为了查明火山碎屑岩中自生碳酸盐矿物的分布特征及对储层物性的影响,以海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷火山碎屑岩为研究对象,调查火山碎屑岩中自生碳酸盐矿物的类型,并通过统计50余口探井的碳酸盐含量及储层物性数据,探讨其分布特征及对储层物性的影响。结果表明：海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷火山碎屑岩中自生碳酸盐矿物主要为方解石和白云石,其次为菱铁矿、片钠铝石和铁白云石;纵向上随着埋藏深度增加出现两个碳酸盐含量高值带,分别出现在1 500～1 900m和2 200～2 700m深度,前者主要为以胶结作用为主的连生方解石和显晶方解石及菱铁矿,后者主要为以交代作用为主的晚期方解石、白云石、铁白云石和片钠铝石;湖底扇等分选较差的沉积相为碳酸盐矿物发育的有利相带,扇-辫状河三角洲相为次有利相带;靠近德尔布干深大断裂的井碳酸盐含量要高于远离该断裂的井,且在该断裂附近的德2、德6和德8等井中见片钠铝石自生矿物,这主要因为断层是CO2逸散的通道,断层处的富CO2流体能够与围岩反应生成碳酸盐矿物;熔结凝灰岩和凝灰岩中的碳酸盐矿物含量要高于沉凝灰岩、凝灰质砂岩及普通砂岩,这主要因为火山岩及火山碎屑物质中金属离子含量高,易于释放,从而结合CO23-形成碳酸盐矿物;贝尔凹陷内储层孔隙度和渗透率等参数与碳酸盐含量呈负相关关系,说明碳酸盐含量对储层物性主要起破坏作用。     

华北下古生界碳酸盐岩中一些结构的形成

碳酸盐岩的结构是在特定的沉积环境或成岩环境里形成,因此,能反映岩石的成因与发展史。某些典型的结构不仅是有指“相”意义,而且能作为找矿标志。本文对华北下古生界碳酸盐岩中的正延性玉髓、石膏型方解石假晶和具有多圈层氧化铁薄膜结构的高能鲕粒等三类结构的形成与环境意义和找矿意义依次进行了论述。     

Geochemical and Mineralogical Characteristics of Pleistocene Lignites and Associated Sediments of Marathousa Coal Field,Central Peloponnese,Greece

The mineralogy and geochemistry data are presented for thirty-seven shales,four concretions,two carbonate sediments and seven lignites from the Marathousa coal field of the Megalopolis Basin in Greece.The argillaceous rocks consist of chlorite,illite,kaolinte,albite,quartz.opal-A,calcite and dolomite;the concretions of aragonite,gypsum and pyrite;and the carbonate rocks of calcite,quartz and illite.The mineral matter in the lignites consists of gypsum,quartz,albite,chlorite,illite,opal-A,dolomite,pyrite,and rarely calcite and kaolinite Athree-factor model explains the total variaition of major and trace elements in the argillaceous sediments.The first factor is an aluminosilicate factor and involves the following elements:Al,Si,Mg,Na,K,Ti,Mn,Nb,Y,Rb,Zn,Cu,Ni,Cr,Nband V,associated with chlorite,albite and illite.The second factor involves the elements Ca,Sr,Ba,Znand Sc and is related to carbonate lithology and mainly the carbonate concretions with gypsum.The third factor involves Fe and Ce with a weak association with Mn.The diagenesis of the Marathousa sediments and lignites was not very advanced as indicated by (a) the total thickness of the sequence (500m),(b) the presence of biogenic silica(opal-A) and (c) the age of the deposit(Pleistocene).FOr these reasons the rpresence of chlorite,illite and kaolinite in the sediments and lignite is due not to diagenetic reactions but to weathering of the flysch and metamorphic rocks at the edges of the Megalopolis Basin and transport of the weathering products(illite,chlorite,kaolinite)into the basin of deposition.The diagenetic minerals of the Marathousa sequence include pyrite,gypsum,dolomite and aragonite.