Genesis of certain bauxite profiles from India

An attempt is made to reveal a geochemical compatibility with paleoenvironment to understand the genesis of bauxite deposits that are derived from two different parent rocks. For this purpose two in situ bauxite profiles, one developed over basalt and another over sandstone, have been taken. Gibbsite is the major mineral in all these bauxites with minor occurrences of goethite, hematite, anatase, kaolinite, etc. From the study it is evident that the paleoenvironment and geochemical processes are vital factors that could lead to the formation of bauxites. The significance of this is fully discussed.     

Characterization of bauxite deposits from Kachchh Area,Gujarat

The bauxites deposits of Kachchh area in Gujarat are investigated to characterize them based on mineralogical and petrographic studies. The major bauxitic mineral in these occurrences is gibbsite, with minor concentration of boehmite and diaspore. Apart from the bauxitic minerals, the other associate minerals are kaolin, calcite, alunite and the iron ore minerals such as hematite and goethite and titanium rich anatase. The iron ore minerals (hematite and goethite) are 10-50microns in size and are disseminated throughout the oolitic and pisolitic bauxitic minerals. At places the goethite exhibits colloform texture. The preservation of basaltic texture in some of the samples indicate that the insitu nature of these bauxites, which are formed by the alteration of calcic plagioclase from the parent basalt. Although, the basalt occurs as the main parent rock for these bauxites, the presence of calcite in some of the samples represent the possibility of having a limestone parent rock at least in some of the bauxite occurrences.     

Ground deformational studies using ALOS-PALSAR data between 2007 and 2010 of the central Kutch area,Gujarat, India

The central Kutch region of Gujarat, India, experienced a M7.7 earthquake on January 26, 2001, causing large-scale ground deformations including a huge loss of lives and infrastructure. The rupture of a hidden reverse fault was the reason for this intense tectonic activity. The post-seismic ground deformations, attributed to the relaxation phase of a stressed crustal layer, have been analyzed using a pair of Advanced Land Observation Satellite-Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) images. The InSAR images were obtained in 2007 and 2010, covering an area around Bhuj. It falls on the Kutch Mainland Fault and Katrol Bhuj Fault. Using the ADORE-DORIS software, interferometric imagery has successfully been generated, covering the study area. This allowed making interesting geological inferences. Three different regions in the study area elicited countable visible colored fringes, indicating different amounts of positive and negative ground deformations (surface motion with respect to the satellite). They occurred within the InSAR data acquisition dates. The region around Bhuj and to the north and east of Bhuj showed top surface deformations of about 35, 35, and 24 cm, respectively. The synoptic view of the interferometric image of the study area suggests two crustal fault lines running to the north and south of Bhuj city. The Institute of Seismological Research, geophysical and Global Positioning System data, indicates that huge seismic events occurred during the year 2007–2010 and supports the observational inference of clustering of interferometric fringes to the E and NE of the study area.     

K-Ar age of Ukra glauconites from the Kutch Basin, India

The present paper reports the K-Ar ages determined on glauconitic samples collected from the Ukra Member of the Mesozoic Bhuj Formation in two different sections, one located on the Ghuneri-Ghaduli road near Katesar Mahadeo temple and the other at the base of the Ukra hill in the northwestern part of the Kutch Mainland area. Three glauconite samples viz., Ukra_KT-1, Ukra_KT-4 and Ukra_UH-3 have yielded K-Ar ages of 107.9 ± 3.4 Ma, 105.5 ± 3.3 Ma and 103.5 ± 3.4 Ma, respectively. The sample Ukra_KT-l treated with 0.5N HC1 and analysed in duplicate has yielded a mean age of 104 ± 2.3 Ma while the sample Ukra_KT-4 treated with 0.1N HCl has given an age of 106.5 ± 3.3 Ma. The ages of the treated and untreated glauconites are indistinguishable within 2σ uncertainty with a mean of 105.2 ± 1.3 Ma, which has been interpreted as the depositional age of the Ukra Member of the Mesozoic Bhuj Formation. The study has further indicated that mild acid treatment (up to 0.5N HCl) does not lead to any loss of radiogenic argon in the glauconites and can be helpful in purification of the samples.     

New Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) ammonite assemblages from Kutch, India

The Bathonian ammonite assemblages have been previously poorly recorded in Kutch. The present study has unearthed a rich array of ammonite taxa ranging from the Middle to Upper Bathonian. While Oxycerites Rollier (1909) is a new record from Kutch, the oldest occurrence of Choffatia Siemiradzki (1898) has been found from the Middle Bathonian horizon. Oxycerites cf. orbis (Giebel) is a zonal index of the Late Bathonian in other areas and thus facilitates interprovincial correlation. Besides, palaeobiogeographic and stratigraphic distribution of many species have been modified based on new information. For example, macrocephalitin species, i.e., Kamptokephalites cf. etheridgei Spath (1928), Macrocephalites bifurcatus transient intermedius Spath (1928), M. cf. mantataranus Boehm (1912) were previously known from West Pacific, Indonesia have been now found in Kutch. Gracilisphinctes Buckman (1920) has been previously known to occur during the Middle Bathonian time, the present work extends its stratigraphic distribution up to the definite Upper Bathonian horizon. Procerites hians (Waagen) an endemic species in Kutch previously known from the Upper Bathonian beds, its stratigraphic range has been extended down to the Middle Bathonian.Detail taxonomy of the newly obtained taxa has been done and in many cases sexual dimorphism has been recognized.     

Petrography and classification of the arenites of the Chari Series in the Jurassic rocks of Central Kutch,Gujarat (India)

The Chari arenites of the Jurassic rocks of Central Kutch form a real transition in the orthoquartzite—carbonate facies. The arenites pose a classificatory problem due to the presence of a good amount of reworked biogenic constituents. In order to get a correct picture, a new classification is proposed to classify these arenites in a meaningful manner, with quartz + rock fragments, felspar, and biogenic constituents as the three poles of the triangle.The petrographic characteristics of the arenites with a brief account of heavy-mineral and mechanical composition, is given. It is concluded that these arenites form a part of the orthoquartzite—carbonate facies.     

New Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) ammonite assemblages from Kutch,India

The Bathonian ammonite assemblages have been previously poorly recorded in Kutch. The present study has unearthed a rich array of ammonite taxa ranging from the Middle to Upper Bathonian. While Oxycerites Rollier (1909) is a new record from Kutch, the oldest occurrence of Choffatia Siemiradzki (1898) has been found from the Middle Bathonian horizon. Oxycerites cf. orbis (Giebel) is a zonal index of the Late Bathonian in other areas and thus facilitates interprovincial correlation. Besides, palaeobiogeographic and stratigraphic distribution of many species have been modified based on new information. For example, macrocephalitin species, i.e., Kamptokephalites cf. etheridgei Spath (1928), Macrocephalites bifurcatus transient intermedius Spath (1928), M. cf. mantataranus Boehm (1912) were previously known from West Pacific, Indonesia have been now found in Kutch. Gracilisphinctes Buckman (1920) has been previously known to occur during the Middle Bathonian time, the present work extends its stratigraphic distribution up to the definite Upper Bathonian horizon. Procerites hians (Waagen) an endemic species in Kutch previously known from the Upper Bathonian beds, its stratigraphic range has been extended down to the Middle Bathonian.Detail taxonomy of the newly obtained taxa has been done and in many cases sexual dimorphism has been recognized.     

Sensitivity analysis of seismic hazard for the northwestern portion of the state of Gujarat, India

We test the sensitivity of seismic hazard to three fault source models for the northwestern portion of Gujarat, India. The models incorporate different characteristic earthquake magnitudes on three faults with individual recurrence intervals of either 800 or 1600 years. These recurrence intervals imply that large earthquakes occur on one of these faults every 266–533 years, similar to the rate of historic large earthquakes in this region during the past two centuries and for earthquakes in intraplate environments like the New Madrid region in the central United States. If one assumes a recurrence interval of 800 years for large earthquakes on each of three local faults, the peak ground accelerations (PGA; horizontal) and 1-Hz spectral acceleration ground motions (5% damping) are greater than 1 g over a broad region for a 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years' hazard level. These probabilistic PGAs at this hazard level are similar to median deterministic ground motions. The PGAs for 10% in 50 years' hazard level are considerably lower, generally ranging between 0.2 g and 0.7 g across northwestern Gujarat. Ground motions calculated from our models that consider fault interevent times of 800 years are considerably higher than other published models even though they imply similar recurrence intervals. These higher ground motions are mainly caused by the application of intraplate attenuation relations, which account for less severe attenuation of seismic waves when compared to the crustal interplate relations used in these previous studies. For sites in Bhuj and Ahmedabad, magnitude (M) 7 3/4 earthquakes contribute most to the PGA and the 0.2- and 1-s spectral acceleration ground motion maps at the two considered hazard levels.     

Deterministic seismic scenario for Gujarat region, India

In this study, the modified stochastic method based on dynamic corner frequency has been used for the simulation of strong ground motions in Gujarat region. The earthquake-generating faults have been identified in the Gujarat region on the basis of past seismicity of the region. In all, 19 probable faults have been identified with 12 in Kachchh region, 5 in Saurashtra and 2 in Mainland Gujarat region. The maximum magnitude has been assigned to each fault based on the regional tectonic environment and past seismicity. The strong ground motions from these identified sources have been estimated at numerous points distributed all over Gujarat region on a grid. The peak ground acceleration (PGA) values have been extracted from the accelerograms and contoured. The spatial distribution of maximum of 19 PGA values at every grid point have been described and discussed. The ground motions at the surface of 32 important cities of the Gujarat have been estimated by incorporating the site amplification functions. The site amplification functions are obtained using the local earthquake data. These cities are located on various types of geological formations. We note that the site amplification functions have modified the character of the records and amplified the acceleration values at almost all the sites. The Kachchh region can expect surface accelerations between 400 and 800 cm/s², Saurashtra between 100 and 200 cm/s² and Mainland less than 50 cm/s² from a future large earthquake. The obtained results are useful for disaster mitigation measures, strengthening the existing built environment and design of structures in the region.     

The hydrocarbon potential, thermal maturity, sequence stratigraphic setting and depositional palaeoenvironment of carbonaceous shale and lignite successions of Panandhro, northwestern Kutch Basin, Gujarat, Western India

The objective of the present paper is to provide geochemical and palynological data to characterize lignites and carbonaceous shales from Panandhro, northwestern Kutch Basin, Gujarat, Western India, in terms of their hydrocarbon potential, thermal maturity, sequence stratigraphic settings and depositional palaeoenvironment. The samples, collected in Panandhro lignite mine, belong to Naredi Formation of Late Paleocene-Early Eocene age. The geochemical results are based on proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, X-ray diffraction and Rock-Eval py-rolysis analyses, whereas palynological data include palynofossil composition and thermal alteration index (TAI). The TOC, hydrogen index (HI), cracked hydrocarbon (S2), bitumen index (BI), quality index (QI), and the total genetic potential (S1+S2) values indicate that the studied lignites and carbonaceous shales have good source rock potential. The organic matter is predominantly of type II and type II/III kerogen, which has potential to generate oil as well as gas. Thermal maturity determined from thermal alteration index (TAI), T _max and production index (PI) indicates that the organic matter is immature, and in the diagenesis stage of organic matter transformation. The deposition of the studied carbonaceous shales and lignites took place in palaeoenvironments varying from brackish mangrove to freshwater swamp. This study indicates that the proportion of ferns, palms, volatile matter content, S/C, H/C ratios, as well as the presence of siderite and quartz can be used as an indicator of accommodation trends in the coal depositional system. The Panandhro carbonaceous shales and lignites were deposited during the lowstand systems tract with many cycles of small magnitude trangressive-regressive phases. Thus, the geochemistry and ecological palynology are useful not only for the investigation of coal quality and origin, but also to infer accommodation space settings of the mire. This can be gainfully utilized in the coal industry for coal mine planning, development and exploitation, because of the predictive ability to infer changes in stratigraphy and coal quality.     

Crystallization History of Primitive Deccan Basalt from Pavagadh Hill,Gujarat, Western India

The ‘Three Phenocryst Basalts’ (TPB) from Pavagadh hill constitute one of the most primitive basalts in Deccan traps. Electron microprobe analyses of phenocryst minerals from the TPB reveal that the Fo % of olivine varies from 89 to 68, the clinopyroxene grains are diopside/salite or augite and the Cr# [Cr/(Cr+Al)] in spinel is about 0.65. The An content of feldspar varies from 63 to 67. The mineral chemical data allow us to infer that olivine and spinel crystallized early, and when olivine attained Fo76–73%, the crystallization of clinopyroxene was initiated. Plagioclase crystallization occurred at the late stage. It is indicated that the source region of the TPB may possibly be undepleted mantle (lherzolite zone) at about 85 km depth and 27 kbar pressure, where Cr# of spinel is about 0.47.     

Alkaline magmatism from Kutch, NW India: implications for plume–lithosphere interaction

Geochemical data are presented for primitive alkaline rocks from the Kutch region, north–northwest of Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP) of west central India, which is generally regarded as related to the Reunion Plume. The trace element systematics of these rocks are similar to those of ocean-island basalts, but there is considerable compositional variation, which is related to a strong overprint from the lithosphere on plume-derived magmas. This subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) component has geochemical characteristics that overlap those observed in spinel lherzolite xenoliths entrained in these rocks. Phlogopite and apatite in the SCLM are of metasomatic origin attributed to the infiltrating fluids and/or melts derived from rising mantle plume material. The composition of the alkaline rocks is consistent with a regional upwelling of deep mantle related to marginal rifting and with OIB-type geochemical characteristics. Thermal inhomogeneities within such plume swath resulted in small diapirs, which may have undergone melt segregation at the base of the lithosphere (100 km) and incorporated varying amounts of SCLM during ascent.     

Late Quaternary sediments from Nal Sarovar, Gujarat, India: Distribution and provenance

A 54-m long core was raised from the bed of the Nal Sarovar, a large shallow lake located in the middle of the low-lying region linking the Gulfs of Kachchh and Khambhat, in western India. A three-layer sequence comprising: Zone-1 (top 3 m), predominantly silty-clay/clayey; Zone-2 (3–18 m), sandy; and Zone-3 (18–54 m), dominated by sticky silty-clay/clayey-silt with occasional thin sand layers and basalt fragments was identified. Smectite and illite are the dominant clay minerals with minor amounts of kaolinite and chlorite. Very high content of smectite (53–97%) in the clays of the lowermost zone (18–54 m) and the geomorphic features of the surrounding region suggested that the sediments were derived from the basaltic terrain of Saurashtra and/or via the Gulf of Khambhat. The clay content in the middle zone (3–18 m), dominantly sandy, is very low. Therefore, provenance for this zone was derived using heavy minerals in the sand fraction. The heavy mineral species in this zone suggested the mixed metamorphic and igneous terrain of Aravallis as the major source. The grain-size distribution of this zone closely matched with the sediments underlying the modern Sabarmati riverbed at Ahmedabad, suggesting fluvial depositional environment. Clays also dominate sediments of the topmost (0–3 m) zone with illite as the dominant (74–81%) specie followed by smectite suggesting derivation from the mixed metamorphic and igneous terrain of Aravallis.     

Estimation of seismic hazard in Gujarat region, India

The seismic hazard in the Gujarat region has been evaluated. The scenario hazard maps showing the spatial distribution of various parameters like peak ground acceleration, characteristics site frequency and spectral acceleration for different periods have been presented. These parameters have been extracted from the simulated earthquake strong ground motions. The expected damage to buildings from future large earthquakes in Gujarat region has been estimated. It has been observed that the seismic hazard of Kachchh region is more in comparison with Saurashtra and mainland. All the cities of Kachchh can expect peak acceleration in excess of 500?cm/s² at surface in case of future large earthquakes from major faults in Kachchh region. The cities of Saurashtra can expect accelerations of less than 200?cm/s² at surface. The mainland Gujarat is having the lowest seismic hazard as compared with other two regions of Gujarat. The expected accelerations are less than 50?cm/s² at most of the places. The single- and double-story buildings in Kachchh region are at highest risk as they can expect large accelerations corresponding to natural periods of such small structures. Such structures are relatively safe in mainland region. The buildings of 3?C4 stories and tall structures that exist mostly in cities of Saurashtra and mainland can expect accelerations in excess of 100?cm/s² during a large earthquake in Kachchh region. It has been found that a total of 0.11 million buildings in Rajkot taluka of Saurashtra are vulnerable to total damage. In Kachchh region, 0.37 million buildings are vulnerable. Most vulnerable talukas are Bhuj, Anjar, Rapar, Bhachau, and Mandvi in Kachchh district and Rajkot, Junagadh, Jamnagar, Surendernagar and Porbandar in Saurashtra. In mainland region, buildings in Bharuch taluka are more vulnerable due to proximity to active Narmada-Son geo-fracture. The scenario hazard maps presented in this study for moderate as well as large earthquakes in the region may be used to augment the information available in the probabilistic seismic hazard maps of the region.     

Geological introduction to strontium-rich sub-soil brine with emphasis on the Little Rann of Kutch and Bhavnagar,Gujarat

The methodology for green mining operation, one that extracts minerals from waste brine water for eco-friendly products, is appealing. Little Rann of Kutch (LRK) and the sites near Bhavnagar associated with producing sub soil brine water which contain strontium up to 215 mg/L. This value is significant considering its value in sea water (~8 mg/L). The high-strontium brines also contain elevated lithium (up to 2.98 mg/L) and uranium (up to 0.1 mg/L). The occurrence of strontium in the India’s brine water is poorly understood and inadequately represented in the literature. The objectives of this report, therefore, are to illustrate where strontium-rich brine waters occur in Gujarat (India). The investigation of strontium, lithium and uranium in sub-soil brine was accomplished by the ICP-OES instrument. We have checked the pH, density, specific gravity and Degree Bowme (DB’) of the all samples. Alkali and alkaline earth metals like Na, K, Mg, Ca and Ba; metalloid B; transition element like Zn, Cr and Fe; heavy metals like Cd, Pb and Ni were also analysed for toxicity evaluation and anion Cl^– and SO₄ ^–2 were analysed by classical methods. Field wise, there is considerable variation in strontium, lithium and uranium in sub-soil brine water.     

Ferrocarbonatites in the Amba Dongar Diatreme,Gujarat, India

In the Amba Dongar diatreme, “ferrocarbonatite” is not a single unit of late differentiate of calciocarbonatite magma but it is a family with variation on field occurrence, mineralogy and chemistry of each unit. The family includes dikes of ankeritic carbonatites (phase I and II), plugs of ankeritic carbonatite within sövite ring dike, dikes of sideritic carbonatite in ankeritic carbonatite plug and rödberg veins. Their intrusive relations are very clear in the field and each phase has characteristic mineralogy and trace and REE geochemistry. According to the nomenclature suggested by Harmer and Gittins (1997) majority of “ferrocarbonatites” of Amba Dongar plot in field of “ferruginous calciocarbonatite” and only siderite and rödberg plot in the field of “ferrocarbonatite”. Within these family members, their trace and REE show clear increase from early phase to last phase of sideritic carbonatite. The present short communication discusses various aspects of “ferrocarbonatites”.     

Elemental composition of calcites in late Quaternary pedogenic calcretes from Gujarat,western India

Pedogenic calcretes commonly exhibit clotted micrite, circum-granular calcite (grain coats) and microspar/spar veins. The three calcite-types with different dimensions were analyzed for their magnesium content to determine the relationship between crystal elongation and magnesium incorporation. The results show a very low MgO content for grain coats and microspars and high values for clotted micrite indicating that the ideal kinetic model does not hold true and several variables govern the end composition of calcites. The magnesium concentrations of meteoric calcites are genetically linked to the evolutionary history of the soil and climate. Grain coats, which are elongated calcites, contain the least amount of Mg and is related to the initial stages of pedogenesis wherein the limiting factor is the Mg/Ca ratio of the parent fluid. Lower magnesium contents arise due to smaller quantities of Mg being released during incipient weathering. Micrite morphology and composition is controlled by the greater availability of Mg ions through weathering, higher pCO₂ in soil due to increased time-dependent soil respiration, which causes a rise in calcite precipitation rates and clay authigenesis. This in turn exerts a physical control on morphology by occluding pore space and providing numerous nuclei for calcite precipitation. The wide variability in spar cements is inherently controlled by inhomogeneties in parent fluid compositions with lower-than-micrite values on account of slower precipitation rates.     

Elemental composition of calcites in late Quaternary pedogenic calcretes from Gujarat, western India

Pedogenic calcretes commonly exhibit clotted micrite, circum-granular calcite (grain coats) and microspar/spar veins. The three calcite-types with different dimensions were analyzed for their magnesium content to determine the relationship between crystal elongation and magnesium incorporation. The results show a very low MgO content for grain coats and microspars and high values for clotted micrite indicating that the ideal kinetic model does not hold true and several variables govern the end composition of calcites. The magnesium concentrations of meteoric calcites are genetically linked to the evolutionary history of the soil and climate. Grain coats, which are elongated calcites, contain the least amount of Mg and is related to the initial stages of pedogenesis wherein the limiting factor is the Mg/Ca ratio of the parent fluid. Lower magnesium contents arise due to smaller quantities of Mg being released during incipient weathering. Micrite morphology and composition is controlled by the greater availability of Mg ions through weathering, higher pCO₂ in soil due to increased time-dependent soil respiration, which causes a rise in calcite precipitation rates and clay authigenesis. This in turn exerts a physical control on morphology by occluding pore space and providing numerous nuclei for calcite precipitation. The wide variability in spar cements is inherently controlled by inhomogeneties in parent fluid compositions with lower-than-micrite values on account of slower precipitation rates.