Modeling Sensitivity to Accuracy in Classified Imagery: A Study of Areal Interpolation by Dasymetric Mapping*

Areal interpolation is the process by which data collected from one set of zonal units can be estimated for another zonal division of the same space that shares few or no boundaries with the first. In previous research, we outlined the use of dasymetric mapping for areal interpolation and showed it to be the most accurate method tested. There we used control information derived from classified satellite imagery to parameterize the dasymetric method, but because such data are rife with errors, here we extend the work to examine the sensitivity of the population estimates to error in the classified imagery. Results show the population estimates by dasymetric mapping to be largely insensitive to the errors of classification in the Landsat image when compared with the other methods tested. The dasymetric method deteriorates to the accuracy of the next worst estimate only when 40% error occurs in the classified image, a level of error that may easily be bettered within most remote sensing projects.     

面插值的研究进展

空间插值从广义上讲包括点插值和面插值 ,本文从有无辅助数据的角度介绍了还不为多数人熟知的面插值 ,在无辅助数据的方法中介绍了基于点的面插值法、面域比重插值法、使用控制区的面域比重法、Pycnophylactic面插值法等的算法和特点 ,在有辅助数据的方法中介绍了 EM算法和遥感作为辅助数据的面插值法 ,并介绍了面插值中的特例 -统计数据的空间化方法。     

Dasymetric Spatiotemporal Interpolation

This research applies the principles of dasymetric mapping to spatiotemporal interpolation by extending the spatial concepts of zone and area to their temporal analogs of interval and duration, respectively. An example application of dasymetric spatiotemporal interpolation using crime event data is presented. Results indicate that dasymetric spatiotemporal interpolation significantly improves the accuracy of estimates over areal or duration weighting. In addition, even when dasymetric interpolation in either the spatial or temporal dimension is relatively weak, combining dasymetric estimation in both space and time dimensions simultaneously has the potential to amplify the accuracy of the overall dasymetric estimation.     

基于RS和GIS的人口估计方法研究综述

随着RS和GIS技术的迅速发展, RS和GIS成为进行人口估计的主要手段。根据人口估计的目标和使用的数据源不同,可以把基于RS和GIS的人口估计方法分成两大类：面插值方法和统计模型方法。面插值方法根据插值过程中是否使用辅助数据可以进一步分成无辅助数据的面插值和有辅助数据的面插值两种。统计模型方法根据模型中自变量的不同可以分成建成区面积估计法、土地利用密度法、居住单元估计法、图像像元特征估计法和自然和社会经济特征综合估计法五种。本文按照上述分类标准综述了基于RS和GIS的各种人口估计方法,分析了各种方法的应用条件、优缺点和研究实例。最后提出了在基于RS和GIS进行人口估计方面需要进一步研究的问题。     

Interpolating U.S. Decennial Census Tract Data from as Early as 1970 to 2010: A Longitudinal Tract Database

Differences in the reporting units of data from diverse sources and changes in units over time are common obstacles to analysis of areal data. We compare common approaches to this problem in the context of changes over time in the boundaries of U.S. census tracts. In every decennial census, many tracts are split, consolidated, or changed in other ways from the previous boundaries to reflect population growth or decline. We examine two interpolation methods to create a bridge between years, one that relies only on areal weighting and another that also introduces population weights. Results demonstrate that these approaches produce substantially different estimates for variables that involve population counts, but they have a high degree of convergence for variables defined as rates or averages. Finally, the article describes the Longitudinal Tract Database (LTDB), through which we are making available public-use tools to implement these methods to create estimates within 2010 tract boundaries for any tract-level data (from the census or other sources) that are available for prior years as early as 1970.     

Fine-resolution population mapping using OpenStreetMap points-of-interest

Data on population at building level is required for various purposes. However, to protect privacy, government population data is aggregated. Population estimates at finer scales can be obtained through areal interpolation, a process where data from a first spatial unit system is transferred to another system. Areal interpolation can be conducted with ancillary data that guide the redistribution of population. For population estimation at the building level, common ancillary data include three-dimensional data on buildings, obtained through costly processes such as LiDAR. Meanwhile, volunteered geographic information (VGI) is emerging as a new category of data and is already used for purposes related to urban management. The objective of this paper is to present an alternative approach for building level areal interpolation that uses VGI as ancillary data. The proposed method integrates existing interpolation techniques, i.e., multi-class dasymetric mapping and interpolation by surface volume integration; data on building footprints and points-of-interest (POIs) extracted from OpenStreetMap (OSM) are used to refine population estimates at building level. A case study was conducted for the city of Hamburg and the results were compared using different types of POIs. The results suggest that VGI can be used to accurately estimate population distribution, but that further research is needed to understand how POIs can reveal population distribution patterns.     

人口统计数据的空间转换

在经济和社会研究中,所要研究的区域之上经常没有数据,而这些数据需要由已知区域的数据求得,即统计数据需要空间转换,这就通常涉及到面积内插。本文从GIS的角度研究如何解决人口内插问题,认为面积内插和GIS中的叠加分析是一致的。在传统的面积内插方法的基础上是提出了基于人口真实分布的面积内插方法,并推导出了公式。同时提出了人口密度的递归算法,即把居住区分为人口稀疏地区和人口稠密地区,估计出人口稀疏地区的人口密度,就可以求出人口密集地区的人口密度;再把人口密集区分为新的人口稀疏区和密集区,此过程反复直至求出接近于人口真实分布的人口模型。     

Visualizing Diurnal Population Change in Urban Areas for Emergency Management

There is an increasing need for a quick, simple method to represent diurnal population change in metropolitan areas for effective emergency management and risk analysis. Many geographic studies rely on decennial U.S. Census data that assume that urban populations are static in space and time. This has obvious limitations in the context of dynamic geographic problems. The U.S. Department of Transportation publishes population data at the transportation analysis zone level in fifteen-minute increments. This level of spatial and temporal detail allows for improved dynamic population modeling. This article presents a methodology for visualizing and analyzing diurnal population change for metropolitan areas based on this readily available data. Areal interpolation within a geographic information system is used to create twenty-four (one per hour) population surfaces for the larger metropolitan area of Salt Lake County, Utah. The resulting surfaces represent diurnal population change for an average workday and are easily combined to produce an animation that illustrates population dynamics throughout the day. A case study of using the method to visualize population distributions in an emergency management context is provided using two scenarios: a chemical release and a dirty bomb in Salt Lake County. This methodology can be used to address a wide variety of problems in emergency management.     

中国乡村地域类型及分区发展途径

由于我国乡村地域差异显著,乡村振兴需分类有序推进。本研究立足于人地关系地域系统理论,从资源、环境、人文、经济等维度构建了度量乡村综合发展水平的指标体系和计量模型,划分了乡村地域类型,明确了分区发展途径。结果表明,我国乡村综合发展水平区域差异显著,呈现明显的自东向西递减规律;全国乡村地域类型可以划分为11个一级区和45个二级区,不同类型区制约因子各异;乡村发展水平差异是资源禀赋、功能定位、区位条件、政策文化等因子交互作用的综合体现。地理环境是乡村地域类型分异的决定性因素,资源禀赋状况是乡村地域分异的关键因子,人文和经济因素在乡村系统转型发展中扮演着重要作用。通过对乡村地域类型、特征及其分异机制的研究,为乡村振兴战略的顺利推进提供了理论依据。     

Generating Surface Models of Population Using Dasymetric Mapping*

Aggregated demographic datasets are associated with analytical and cartographic problems due to the arbitrary nature of areal unit partitioning. This article describes a methodology for generating a surface‐based representation of population that mitigates these problems. This methodology uses dasymetric mapping and incorporates areal weighting and empirical sampling techniques to assess the relationship between categorical ancillary data and population distribution. As a demonstration, a 100‐meter‐resolution population surface is generated from U.S. Census block group data for the southeast Pennsylvania region. Remote‐sensing‐derived urban land‐cover data serve as ancillary data in the dasymetric mapping.     

河南省种子植物区系地域分异研究

Flora refers to the sum total of all plants species found in a certain region during a certain period of time (Good, 1974; Wu et al., 1983). It is the result of florogenesis, plant evolution and historical geographical change (Tivy, 1982; Wang, 1992; Chap…     

Areal differentiation of spermatophytic flora in Henan Province

Henan province, located between 110°21’E—116°39’E and 31°23’N—36°22’N, stretches from warm-temperate to subtropical transitional zone. Its special position and resultant varied physical conditions, in its long geologic history, give rise to not only a rich but also complex and prominently transitional flora. Therefore, in-depth study of the floristic areal differentiation is of importance to Chinese florilization and in accurately drawing the boundary of warm-temperate and subtropic zones in China. Based on the recent floristic data, this paper conducts comparison and analysis of the floristic difference and resemblance among the Dabie, Tongbai, Funiu and Taihang Mts. in Henan province. The result shows that the Dabie and the Tongbai Mts. have the similar flora components, the northern and the southern slopes of the Funiu Mts. have identical flora, but the Taihang Mts. stand alone in their floristic character. Therefore these mountainous areas should be grouped into three floral regions in China: the Dabie and the Tongbai Mts. belong to East China Floral Region, the Taihang Mts. to North China Floral Region, and the two slopes of the Funiu Mts. to Central China region.     

Disaggregating population density of the European Union with CORINE land cover

This article describes and compares six disaggregation methods used to produce a dasymetric population density grid of the European Union at a 100 m resolution. Population data were initially available at commune level. The main ancillary information source was CORINE land cover, a land cover map distributed by the European Environment Agency. Information from the Eurostat point survey, land use/cover area frame survey, was also integrated in the parameter estimation of some of the approaches tested. Accurate population data for 1 km cell grids were provided by the Statistical Offices of Austria, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Estonia and Sweden. These data provided the basic reference to quantify the accuracy of each method. The best results were obtained with a modified version of the limiting variable method (Eicher, C. and Brewer, C., 2001. Dasymetric mapping and areal interpolation: implementation and evaluation. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 28, 125–138) that could be implemented, thanks to the national reference grids. For other methods the parameters could be estimated without using the reference grids; among them a method based on logit regression gave the best results. Compared with the traditional choropleth maps that represent a homogeneous density in each commune, the accuracy improvement of the disaggregated maps ranged between 20% and 67% (between 46% and 67% for the best method).     

阿克苏河流域的面雨量序列及其与径流关系

以数字高程模型 (DEM) 的1km×1km网格数据为基础,对阿克苏河流域14个气象站和水文站的1961~2000年的年降水资料进行了自然正交分解 (EOF),通过回归分析,建立主要特征向量与地理因子的插值模型,给出了一个面雨量序列的计算方法,为建立气候要素的区域平均序列提供了一个有效的解决方案,并由此推算出年阿克苏流域平均年降水量的空间分布以及面雨量序列。径流量与面雨量之比 (R/P) 平均为0.43,最高为0.69 (1997年),最低为0.30 (1963年)。计算出的阿克苏河流域面雨量序列与阿克苏河实测径流量序列的趋势变化率分别为5.79×10⁸ m³/10a和4.29×10⁸ m³/10a,两者均表现出增加趋势,但面雨量的增加速率要比径流量大一些,年际变化幅度也要大,面雨量和径流量的变差系数Cv值分别为0.17和0.13。阿克苏河年径流量的变化与夏季0^oC层高度、年面雨量有着十分密切的关系,表明20世纪90年代以来新疆气候的变化是阿克苏河流域径流稳定增加的一个非常重要的因素。     

Stochastic model-based methods for handling uncertainty in areal interpolation

Handling of uncertainty in the estimation of values from source areas to target areas poses a challenge in areal interpolation research. Stochastic model-based methods offer a basis for incorporating such uncertainty, but to date they have not been widely adopted by the GIS community. In this article, we propose one use of such methods based in the problem of interpolating count data from a source set of zones (parishes) to a more widely used target zone geography (postcode sectors). The model developed also uses ancillary statistical count data for a third set of areas nested within both source and target zones. The interpolation procedure was implemented within a Bayesian statistical framework using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, enabling us to take account of all sources of uncertainty included in the model. Distributions of estimated values at the target zone level are presented using both summary statistics and as individual realisations selected to illustrate the degree of uncertainty in the interpolation results. We aim to describe the use of such stochastic approaches in an accessible way and to highlight the need for quantifying estimation uncertainty arising in areal interpolation, especially given the implications arising when interpolated values are used in subsequent analyses of relationships.     

加强人山关系地域系统为核心的山地科学研究

基于我国山区发展的严重滞后、山地环境与社会问题日益增多以及山地科学综合研究工作严重不足的背景,提出加强人山关系地域系统为核心的山地科学综合研究的必要性.在阐述山地概念内涵的基础上,对山地人山关系地域系统基本特征进行了分析,认为人山关系除具有平原、城市人地关系基本特征外,还具有山地所特有的3个特点:1.人山关系动力系统复杂性和不稳定性;2.人山关系物流和能流循环系统的不完整性;3.人山关系利益公平分配的困难性.在此基础上,提出以人山关系地域系统为核心的山地科学学科分类体系,对现代山地科学体系中的基础科学、技术科学和工程技术科学所包含的学科作了界定.最后,对山地人山关系地域系统与现代山地科学学科之间相互关系及其关键理论问题作了讨论.     

Incorporating GIS Building Data and Census Housing Statistics for Sub-Block-Level Population Estimation

This article presents a deterministic model for sub-block-level population estimation based on the total building volumes derived from geographic information system (GIS) building data and three census block-level housing statistics. To assess the model, we generated artificial blocks by aggregating census block areas and calculating the respective housing statistics. We then applied the model to estimate populations for sub-artificial-block areas and assessed the estimates with census populations of the areas. Our analyses indicate that the average percent error of population estimation for sub-artificial-block areas is comparable to those for sub-census-block areas of the same size relative to associated blocks. The smaller the sub-block-level areas, the higher the population estimation errors. For example, the average percent error for residential areas is approximately 0.11 percent for 100 percent block areas and 35 percent for 5 percent block areas.     

论中国地域系统的协调与调控

区域问题是中国社会经济发展中面临的主要问题,协调与处理好区域关系是一项长期而艰巨的任务。以区域经济地理学基本理论为指导,以经济地域系统的协调与调控为主题,论述了世界与中国的地域系统、区域关系及主要区域问题。尤其针对中国着重提出区域生态环境不断恶化,区域差距不断拉大,尤其是工业化、城市化与耕地不断被侵占,以及地方保护主义等突出问题,提出了协调区域关系的相关对策,最终构建了科学合理区域关系的新思路。     

基于SOFM 的区域界线划分方法

区域分异研究是人们对地理环境认知深度和自然地理研究水平的重要标志之一, 划定分区界线就成为一 项迫切而意义重大的工作, 尤其是在气候复杂、地貌多样的我国西南高原、山地组合区。云南省南部地区由于多季 风系统和大地形作用的影响, 气候复杂多样。雨季, 温暖湿润的西南夏季风给研究区西部带来大量降水, 东部雨量 少; 干季, 整个研究区主要在西风南支急流控制之下, 天气晴朗、少雨, 同时也使得植被种类及盖度差别较大。基于 研究区30 个气象台站的海拔高度、多年平均气温和降水、风速、活动积温、潜在蒸散以及MODIS- EVI 等数据, 利用 神经网络技术构建了非线性分类器, 即自组织特征映射模型( SOFM) , 对所有气象台站进行了聚类研究。结果显示, 哀牢山成为阻挡北来冷空气进入西南山地的屏障, 是我国冬季东北风和夏季西南风的分界线, 因此也成为研究区 东、西两类气候的分界线。SOFM网络应用于地形复杂、地貌多样的生态地理区域分异研究, 基本能反映不同区域之 间界线两侧的相似性和差异性, 能够揭示一个由量变到质量过程的连续性, 不失为一种较好的综合自然地理区划 方法。     

利用空间插值法估算云覆盖像元地表温度的可行性研究

云覆盖是热红外遥感应用和地表温度遥感定量反演的重要障碍。实验选取河北衡水地区Landsat TM影像,借助GIS的空间分析功能,探索运用反距离加权(IDW)和普通克里金插值(OK)方法近似估算3种典型地表类型(水面、城镇、农田)下的云覆盖像元地表温度的可行性。实验结果显示:当云覆盖区域达15 000个像元(约等于13.5km2)时,两种空间插值方法对城镇的云覆盖像元地表温度估算误差都为1.6°C左右,而农田和水面的估算误差在1°C左右(且水面估算误差小于农田),这与3种典型地表类型的地表温度空间异质性密切相关。因此,当Landsat TM图像中有少块云覆盖而发生地表温度值缺失时,利用空间插值法估算云覆盖像元的地表温度是切实可行的。