Patterns of Racial Diversity and Segregation in the United States: 1990–2010

The growing ethnic and racial diversity of the United States is evident at all spatial scales. One of the striking features of this new mixture of peoples, however, is that this new diversity often occurs in tandem with racial concentration. This article surveys these new geographies from four points of view: the nation as a whole, states, large metropolitan areas, and neighborhoods. The analysis at each scale relies on a new taxonomy of racial composition that simultaneously appraises both diversity and the lack thereof (Holloway, Wright, and Ellis 2012). Urban analysis often posits neighborhood racial segregation and diversity as either endpoints on a continuum of racial dominance or mirror images of one another. We disturb that perspective and stress that segregation and diversity must be jointly understood—they are necessarily related, although not as inevitable binary opposites. Using census data from 1990, 2000, and 2010, the research points to how patterns of racial diversity and dominance interact across varying spatial scales. This investigation helps answer some basic questions about the changing geographies of racialized groups, setting the stage for the following articles that explore the relationship between geography and the participation of underrepresented groups in higher education.     

Who Is “Forest‐Dependent”? Capturing Local Variation in Forest‐Product Sale,Eastern Honduras

How researchers describe groups living within or near the world's tropical rain forests has important implications for how and why these groups are targeted for assistance by conservation and development organizations. This article explores how data about market behavior can be used to assess one aspect of forest peoples’ livelihoods: their “dependence” on forest resources as a source of market income. With the intent of revealing the importance of methodology to how we describe forest peoples’ livelihoods, I draw from a multiyear survey of market activity among the Tawahka Sumu of Honduras and distinguish nested measures of the Tawahkas’ engagement in forest‐product sale. Results indicate that whether or not the Tawahka —or any forest group — can be considered financially “dependent” on forest resources depends on the spatial and temporal scales at which data are aggregated. As a group, the Tawahka earned 18 percent of total market income from forest‐product sale, but their group profile masked a high degree of heterogeneity at the village and household level. Similarly, multiyear data indicated that while group‐level generalizations adhere from year to year, they belie considerable change in households’ market behavior across years. I discuss three ways in which the findings are relevant to the theory and practice of conservation and development in the humid tropics. I emphasize the importance of spatial scale in interventions, how market‐oriented conservation schemes can benefit from a broader conceptualization of the economic context in which forest‐product sale occurs, and how longitudinal analysis can reveal the dynamism of forest peoples’ livelihoods.     

IRBs as Asset for Ethics Education in Geography

This article frames the research ethics review process conducted by institutional review boards (IRBs) as an opportunity to enrich the education of geographers. Student participation in the IRB process enhances the education of geographers at the undergraduate and graduate levels in two key ways. Geographers can use participation in this process to demonstrate the relevance of a disciplinary code of ethics to professional practice. More important, such participation helps learners, particularly novices, conceptualize research as an ongoing process of intentional inquiry, in which the protection of research participants is vigilantly observed.     

西方尺度研究进展：概念化框架、实践路径及启示

通过梳理西方尺度研究的内涵和主要内容,发现尺度主要包含尺度本体论、尺度隐喻和尺度实践3个主要要素。尺度的本体论认为尺度是静态的等级化的物质实体,尺度的隐喻体现在尺度可通过话语进行多样化的解构和表达,尺度实践表示尺度通过不同行动者间的互动进行社会建构以实现尺度的再创造。尺度的3个要素之间既有统一性又有对立性：在统一性上,尺度本体论为尺度隐喻与尺度实践的实现创造了前提,尺度隐喻及尺度实践发展了尺度本体论;在对立性上,尺度本体论是实在论立场,尺度隐喻和尺度实践是建构论的产物。西方尺度研究主要经历了2个典型的阶段：将尺度物化为固定的空间实体;不同行动主体运用尺度进行社会实践或话语表达。这启示中国化的尺度研究需要将两者结合起来,既要承认物质空间实体的作用,也要接受行动者的能动性,将尺度看作是人、物相互作用的关系网络。文章展示了尺度概念化框架并实现了尺度的应用路径归纳,具体体现在尺度化、尺度解构及尺度政治3个方面。同时提出将资源配置效果纳入到尺度实践的分析要素之中以实现尺度的政治经济,这不仅扩充了尺度的理论内涵,还增加了尺度的实践应用效果和范围。     

PRODUCTIVITY RATINGS BASED ON SOIL SERIES: A METHODOLOGICAL CRITIQUE

How researchers describe groups living within or near the world's tropical rain forests has important implications for how and why these groups are targeted for assistance by conservation and development organizations. This article explores how data about market behavior can be used to assess one aspect of forest peoples’ livelihoods: their “dependence” on forest resources as a source of market income. With the intent of revealing the importance of methodology to how we describe forest peoples’ livelihoods, I draw from a multiyear survey of market activity among the Tawahka Sumu of Honduras and distinguish nested measures of the Tawahkas’ engagement in forest-product sale. Results indicate that whether or not the Tawahka —or any forest group — can be considered financially “dependent” on forest resources depends on the spatial and temporal scales at which data are aggregated. As a group, the Tawahka earned 18 percent of total market income from forest-product sale, but their group profile masked a high degree of heterogeneity at the village and household level. Similarly, multiyear data indicated that while group-level generalizations adhere from year to year, they belie considerable change in households’ market behavior across years. I discuss three ways in which the findings are relevant to the theory and practice of conservation and development in the humid tropics. I emphasize the importance of spatial scale in interventions, how market-oriented conservation schemes can benefit from a broader conceptualization of the economic context in which forest-product sale occurs, and how longitudinal analysis can reveal the dynamism of forest peoples’ livelihoods.     

旅游地缘政治研究进展与展望

通过梳理web of science和中国知网上已有的旅游地缘政治相关研究,按照研究尺度,将旅游地缘政治研究分为国家尺度、跨尺度研究2种类型,此外,还有旅游的地缘政治要素一个单独的主题,归纳总结了目前旅游地缘政治的主要研究议题。总体来说,目前相关研究仍然以国家尺度为主,案例地国家选择呈现出3个主要特征,即倾向于选择受全球地缘政治变动影响较大的区域、面临国内外地缘政治压力的区域和主权尚存争议或主权定义模糊的区域。但逐渐出现了一些跨尺度的研究,考察旅游对国家和游客相互建构的影响。最后,提出了旅游地缘政治可深入探究的4个主题,包括国家间政治关系对旅游的影响、旅游签证制度和国家关系之间的相互作用、旅游作为主动的地缘战略、边境旅游的多尺度研究。     

Scale and the construction of urban space: Temporary re-scaling in Lahti,Finland, during the European Union meeting of 2006

There has recently been discussion on the framings and representations of scale, in particular ways in which scales are constructed and used in legitimizing contrasting views. In these debates, scale has been regarded as an epistemological rather than an ontological question. Moreover, scale has been seen as processual instead of regarding it as a pre-given structure. Drawing on the debates on scale framings and the processual ideas of scale, the article focuses on the temporary framings of scale related to occasional events. The interest is in the discursive framings of scale, and also in the ways in which temporary re-scalings are materialized and embodied in urban spaces. This is illustrated with material related to a European Union meeting that took place in the city of Lahti in Finland in 2006. The case demonstrates how scale-thinking occurs within the city and how an event can produce temporary framings of scale. Using newspaper articles, interviews, field notes, and photographs, the article examines which viewpoints on scale were expressed during the EU meeting, and what kinds of scalar strategies were used in legitimizing different views.     

Witches, children and Kiva-the-research-dog: striking problems encountered in the field

This paper examines how power, privilege and vulnerability can surface in unexpected ways during fieldwork. Drawing from my experiences working with indigenous women and children who beg and sell on the streets of Ecuador, I suggest that researchers do not always hold as much power as we might assume. By positioning myself within stories about witches and children, I discuss how multiple research identities can shift power dynamics in unsettling and unexpected ways. In this paper, I also reflect upon a particularly unorthodox research method: using my dog as a research assistant. My dog inadvertently became instrumental in providing access to children's life stories; however, her presence also highlighted some of the dramatic incongruities between their life experiences and my own.     

Segregation as a multiscalar phenomenon and its implications for neighborhood-scale research: the case of South Seattle 1990–2010

Neighborhoods and neighborhood change are often at least implicitly understood in relation to processes taking place at scales both smaller than and larger than the neighborhood itself. Until recently our capacity to represent these multiscalar processes with quantitative measures has been limited. Recent work on “segregation profiles” by Reardon and collaborators expands our capacity to explore the relationship between population measures and scale. With the methodological tools now available, we need a conceptual shift in how we view population measures in order to bring our theories and measures of neighborhoods into alignment. I argue that segregation can be beneficially viewed as multiscalar; not a value calculable at some “correct” scale, but a continuous function with respect to scale. This shift requires new ways of thinking about and analyzing segregation with respect to scale that engage with the complexity of the multiscalar measure. Using block-level data for eight neighborhoods in Seattle, Washington, I explore the implications of a multiscalar segregation measure for understanding neighborhoods and neighborhood change from 1990 to 2010.     

土地变化科学中的尺度问题与解决途径

尺度问题是土地变化科学中的关键问题。总结国内外近10年来土地变化研究中尺度问题的进展表明:土地变化研究中的尺度问题多集中于数据处理、格局与过程的表征、驱动力的影响、模型运用、生态环境效应以及土地政策与可持续管理等方面。尺度问题主要产生于地理现象的异质性、地理系统的等级性、响应与反馈的非线性、干扰因素的影响及主观认识的局限等。土地变化中尺度问题研究的一般途径为尺度选择-尺度分析-尺度综合;尺度选择时应该以问题为指向,数据为基础,选择适宜的尺度;尺度分析中需要从更大尺度和更小尺度同时开展分析,找出重要的变化动态,防止信息的遗漏或夸大;尺度综合是认识全球与地方关系的纽带,可将其分为尺度上推和尺度下推,在尺度综合中方法是主导,目标是寻找各尺度之间的"连通性"。模型有助于深刻理解土地利用系统动态,发展嵌套式模型是目前尺度综合研究中的重要内容。     

The Sochi 2014 olympics: nationalism,globalized place-making and multiscalar legitimacy

The Olympics literature typically makes cities the predominant unit of analysis and investigates how and why certain cities host the Games. This article examines how the international and national self-seeking bureaucratic elites instrumentalize the Games across several spatial scales, with a host city functioning as a stage on which the multi-scalar actors use the Olympics to increase their legitimacy and to coopt large groups of populations and elites. The article offers the concept of multiscalar Olympics legitimacy necessary for the analysis of the organization of mega-events and their consequences for cities. It asks, how the actors at various geographical scales managed and exploited the Games? Drawing on the theories of legitimacy and mega-events, and data from interviews conducted in Russia between 2009 and 2015, I demonstrate that organizers used cooptation of professionals and nationalist legitimization as the instruments facilitating host city involvement in the Olympics.     

The construction of ‘local’ interest in New South Wales environmental planning processes

Deliberative democracy in the form of community participation is considered a ‘key priority’ in New South Wales (NSW) environmental planning. Community participation plays an increasingly central role in state significant developments, which are often sites of contestation. Community participation processes draw upon particular factors of place-based identity, which engage with notions of procedural legitimacy in subtle and not-so-subtle ways. This paper uses a legal geography analysis to explore this link between place-based identity and the experience of procedural legitimacy. We highlight a case study in which a contested coal mining development near Lithgow, NSW was approved by the NSW Planning Assessment Commission (PAC). This analysis examines how ‘local’ justice was constructed and mobilised in specific ways by proponents and opponents alike. Spatial factors of identity manifested in distinct ways in participation processes, particularly with respect to (i) claims to legitimacy and (ii) the lived experiences of engagement in a public forum. This case study demonstrates the way in which dualistic spatial terms such as ‘outsider’ opposition and ‘local’ support can render multiple interests of both human and non-human communities invisible. In so doing we are engaging with current work on environmental justice that examines the intersection of scale, efficacy and equity in processes of environmental governance.     

Scalar thickening: Wildlife management areas and conservation scales in southeast Tanzania

The debate on scale in geography has yielded nuanced concepts that have enhanced scale analysis and methodologies for scale‐related research. Despite this advancement, questions still linger on the value of scale as a geographical vocabulary, partly because scalar analyses remain predicated on hierarchies, which have limited explanatory power. In this paper we draw on insight from political ecology to affirm and expand on the usefulness of scale for geographical inquiry and for engaging with contemporary people–environment relations. In particular, the paper appreciates that ecology is at the core of methodological questions pertaining to the explanation of these relations and is increasingly involved in the construction of biodiversity discourses and strategies that rely heavily on conceptions of, and pronouncements on, scale. We use the concept of scalar thickness as a way of thinking about how spaces of conservation are organized and the propensity of scales to coalesce at various stages of scale‐producing processes. We argue that wildlife management areas in Tanzania have played a pivotal role in the thickening of the micro scale in the southeast region. These areas constitute the scale at and though which global conservation agendas are implemented and natural resource rights and benefits are contested.     

Doing groups: Situating knowledge and creating stories

This paper presents group research as a potentially powerful research tool for cultural geographers interested in the ways knowledge is produced at the interpersonal level. I argue that groups can create unique research spaces that incorporate 'sociality', the everyday social norms, logics and languages that guide ordinary conversations, into the research agenda. By concentrating on these discursive norms, insights can be obtained into the ways that knowledge is negotiated, produced and constrained in different places. To demonstrate the value of group research, a case study involving Australian environmentalists is analysed, to show how forests are constructed, contested and naturalised within this particular subculture. The article concludes by emphasising the importance of group research to critical geographers interested in social empowerment and change.     

Scale effects in food environment research: Implications from assessing socioeconomic dimensions of supermarket accessibility in an eight-county region of South Carolina

Choice of neighborhood scale affects associations between environmental attributes and health-related outcomes. This phenomenon, a part of the modifiable areal unit problem, has been described fully in geography but not as it relates to food environment research. Using two administrative-based geographic boundaries (census tracts and block groups), supermarket geographic measures (density, cumulative opportunity and distance to nearest) were created to examine differences by scale and associations between three common U.S. Census–based socioeconomic status (SES) characteristics (median household income, percentage of population living below poverty and percentage of population with at least a high school education) and a summary neighborhood SES z-score in an eight-county region of South Carolina. General linear mixed-models were used. Overall, both supermarket density and cumulative opportunity were higher when using census tract boundaries compared to block groups. In analytic models, higher median household income was significantly associated with lower neighborhood supermarket density and lower cumulative opportunity using either the census tract or block group boundaries, and neighborhood poverty was positively associated with supermarket density and cumulative opportunity. Both median household income and percent high school education were positively associated with distance to nearest supermarket using either boundary definition, whereas neighborhood poverty had an inverse association. Findings from this study support the premise that supermarket measures can differ by choice of geographic scale and can influence associations between measures. Researchers should consider the most appropriate geographic scale carefully when conducting food environment studies.     

Experiential Learning,Spatial Practice,and Critical Urban Geographies

Abstract

Experiential learning pedagogies are being adopted across undergraduate education and touted as an effective strategy for enhancing student learning. This paper develops an explanation for how and why such pedagogies can foster students' critical thinking and learning. Drawing on data collected from first-year students in “field based” urban geography courses at an urban university, I show how students' existing knowledge of urban spaces and specific parts of the city is constructed from a variety of sources and experiences, and can be incorporated in experiential learning activities in ways that foster critical learning. Such an approach is crucial to creating learning environments in higher education that include a greater diversity of student identities and life experiences.     

The place of individuals in the politics of scale

Conceptualizations and re-conceptualizations of scale have been powerful tools for explaining spatial processes that transcend traditionally-bounded territories. Examining the role of individuals within a politics of scale can do even more to explain multi-scalar conflicts. This paper does so by examining struggles over airport expansion in the US, showing how an understanding of the various roles of individuals in the politics of scale – as sites of multiple scales, as actors constituting other scales, and as scales in and of themselves – better explains multi-scalar conflicts and offers more opportunities for resolving them.     

重大事件公众参与的国际经验与教训

作为一种新的旨在刺激举办地经济发展的、具有潜在高风险的公共政策,奥运会、世博会等重大事件有广泛的公众参与要求．而事实上公众很少能参与重大事件的决策过程。本文从参与领域、途径和保障等角度．对国外重大事件公众参与的实践进行了分析,并得出最终结论：在重大事件管理的全过程（研究-申办-筹办-举办-事后管理）．公众都能以不同形式参与进来;而且,只要是事件管理者主动吸收公众参与．他们大都倾向于使用较高级的参与形式。另外,对国外相关事件的公众参与经验进行归纳总结．也能给北京奥运会、上海世博会的组织者带来有益的启示。     

Mining History: Mobilizing The Past In Struggles Over Mineral Extraction In Peru

This paper examines how the past is constructed and mobilized within contemporary Peruvian mining politics. Beginning with an exploration of tensions existing within the mining industry's relationship to its history, I analyze how mining proponents have sought to both naturalize today's mining expansion by locating it within a national history of extraction, while also working to break free from certain negative aspects of the industry's past. The paper then examines how the past is remembered and invoked within the context of on‐the‐ground struggles at a large‐scale gold mine in the region of Ancash. I address the contradictory ways in which local history is constructed in these struggles and document how memories of past experiences with mining inform how area residents understand and critique the “new” mining economy. This paper underscores the need to understand the complicated, selective, and often‐contradictory ways in which the past is made present in extractive industry conflicts.     

虚拟地理环境中尺度适宜性问题的探讨

本文沿着地理学语言的演化过程,讨论了地理学中尺度概念的演变;针对虚拟地理环境的框架结构,依据尺度概念的维度、类别和组成因素分析了四组尺度适宜性问题,并讨论了在虚拟地理环境搭建和应用过程中各种尺度适宜性之间的关系。以香港区域气象过程模拟为例,应用多尺度地形数据和模型,简要分析了在空间维上,测量尺度类别中组成因素（分辨率） 层次的尺度适宜性。该案例不只表明尺度适宜性对动态地理过程问题求解的重要影响,同时表明对尺度适宜性的讨论有助于其认知与分解,丰富虚拟地理环境的理论与方法。