The Impacts of the Appalachian Mountains on the Post-Glacial Migration Pathways and Gene Flow of Sugar Maple (Acer Saccharum)

Understanding the post-glacial migration of species from their Pleistocene refugia to their modern ranges requires an examination of the influence of topography on migration pathways. We refined the migration ranges of sugar maple (Acer saccharum) since the last ice age, as described by Delcourt and Delcourt (1987), to exclude elevations where sugar maple was unlikely to have existed. The elevations, used as indictors of climatic limits, were based on the modern regional elevation limits of sugar maple. Paleo-range maps of sugar maple were combined with a digital elevation model in a geographic information system to remove the climatically unsuitable regions for sugar maple along its post-glacial migration. The genetic consequences of the interrupted migration pathways of sugar maple are discussed in relation to published studies of broad-spatial-scale genetic diversity in sugar maple.     

基于地形因素的秦巴山区人口-经济空间格局及其影响机制研究

地形是影响区域人口分布和社会经济发展的重要因素,尤其在山地区域其影响和约束作用更加明显。以秦巴山区为例,基于SRTM数据提取高程和地形起伏度,借助多种空间分析和地统计学方法,分多个尺度对人口、经济空间的格局和分异特征进行分析,重点从地形要素定量揭示其与人口、经济空间的相互关系和影响程度。研究表明：① 秦巴山区人口经济空间分异特征明显,Lorenz曲线和基尼系数结果显示,人口分布具有不均衡性,但不均衡程度低于全国水平,Moran's I指数结果说明人口、经济空间具有一定集聚特征,且在像元尺度下集聚程度更明显;②人口、GDP密度呈现外围热、内部冷的空间格局,通过像元尺度的空间要素密度分析发现人口、经济要素在垂直方向上的分异十分明显;③ 样带研究中人口、GDP密度与海拔的变化曲线呈反向相关,人口、经济在小尺度范围对地形有一定的适应性;④ 经济发展对地形条件依赖性更强,人口和村庄对地形的适应性更加明显;地形的垂直分异特征导致自然环境和区域发展条件的空间差异,进而影响着人口、经济的空间分布格局。     

中国亚热带丘陵山区植被沿海拔梯度分布格局(英文)

Knowledge of vegetation distribution patterns is very important.Their relationships with topography and climate were explored through a geographically weighted regression(GWR) framework in a subtropical mountainous and hilly region,Minjiang River Basin of Fujian in China.The HJ-1 satellite image acquired on December 9,2010 was utilized and NDVI index was calculated representing the range of vegetation greenness.Proper analysis units were achieved through segregation based on small sub-basins and altitudinal bands.Results indicated that the GWR model was more powerful than ordinary linear least square(OLS) regression in interpreting vegetation-environmental relationship,indicated by higher adjusted R 2 and lower Akaike information criterion values.On one side,the OLS analysis revealed dominant positive influence from parameters of elevation and slope on vegetation distribution.On the other side,GWR analysis indicated that spatially,the parameters of topography had a very complex relationship with the vegetation distribution,as results of the various combinations of environmental factors,vegetation composition and also anthropogenic impact.The influences of elevation and slope generally decreased,from strongly positive to nearly zero,with increasing altitude and slope.Specially,most rapid changes of coefficients between NDVI and elevation or slope were observed in relatively flat and low-lying areas.This paper confirmed that the non-stationary analysis through the framework of GWR could lead to a better understanding of vegetation distribution in subtropical mountainous and hilly region.It was hoped that the proposed scale selection method combined with GWR framework would provide some guidelines on dealing with both spatial(horizontal) and altitudinal(vertical) non-stationarity in the dataset,and it could easily be applied in characterizing vegetation distribution patterns in other mountainous and hilly river basins and related research.     

基于遥感解译的中国农房空间分布特征分析

中国农房分布研究是乡村振兴的基础性工作之一。本文利用Mask R-CNN深度学习框架,采用亚米级遥感影像,基于中国各省农房的人文地理特征,分省训练出适用于本地的农房遥感解译模型,共识别1484个县的1.54亿栋农房,总建筑面积达298.2亿m²,创建出以单体农房为基础的多尺度中国农房数据库。本文分别以县域、镇域和聚落为单元进行农房密度分析：县域单元的农房密度呈现“东密西疏”的分布特征,与胡焕庸线揭示的人口分布格局相符;镇域单元的农房密度沿三大地形阶梯自西向东递增,分布从集中走向平均,与农业区划的农业生产力、地形地貌特征高度耦合;聚落单元的农房分布则呈现“南密北疏”特征形态,与气候条件、地形地貌、人均耕地等相关联。中国农房数据库的建设将为“可计算的”乡村研究奠定基础。     

Small valley glaciers and the effectiveness of the glacial buzzsaw in the northern Basin and Range, USA

The glacial buzzsaw hypothesis suggests that efficient erosion limits topographic elevations in extensively glaciated orogens. Studies to date have largely focussed on regions where large glaciers (tens of kilometres long) have been active. In light of recent studies emphasising the importance of lateral glacial erosion in lowering peaks and ridgelines, we examine the effectiveness of small glaciers in limiting topography under both relatively slow and rapid rock uplift conditions. Four ranges in the northern Basin and Range, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, USA, were chosen for this analysis. Estimates of maximum Pleistocene slip rates along normal faults bounding the Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains (~ 0.14 mm y^− 1), Lemhi Range (~ 0.3 mm y^− 1) and Lost River Range (~ 0.3 mm y^− 1) are an order of magnitude lower than those on the Teton Fault (~ 2 mm y^− 1). We compare the distribution of glacial erosion (estimated from cirque floor elevations and last glacial maximum (LGM) equilibrium line altitude (ELA) reconstructions) and fault slip rate with three metrics of topography in each range: the along-strike maximum elevation swath profile, hypsometry, and slope-elevation profiles. In the slowly uplifting Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains, and Lemhi and Lost River Ranges, trends in maximum elevation parallel ELAs, independent of variations in fault slip rate. Maximum elevations are offset ~ 500 m from LGM ELAs in the Lost River Range, Lemhi Range, and northern Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains, and by ~ 350 m in the southern Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains, where glacial extents were less. The offset between maximum topography and mean Quaternary ELAs, inferred from cirque floor elevations, is ~ 350 m in the Lost River and Lemhi Ranges, and 200–250 m in the Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains. Additionally, slope-elevation profiles are flattened and hypsometry profiles show a peak in surface areas close to the ELA in the Lemhi Range and Beaverhead–Bitterroot Mountains, suggesting that small glaciers efficiently limit topography. The situation in the Lost River Range is less clear as a glacial signature is not apparent in either slope-elevation profiles or the hypsometry. In the rapidly uplifting Teton Range, the distribution of ELAs appears superficially to correspond to maximum topography, hypsometry, and slope-elevations profiles, with regression lines on maximum elevations offset by ~ 700 and ~ 350 m from the LGM and mean Quaternary ELA respectively. However, Grand Teton and Mt. Moran represent high-elevation “Teflon Peaks” that appear impervious to glacial erosion, formed in the hard crystalline bedrock at the core of the range. Glacier size and drainage density, rock uplift rate, and bedrock lithology are all important considerations when assessing the ability of glaciers to limit mountain range topography. In the northern Basin and Range, it is only under exceptional circumstances in the Teton Range that small glaciers appear to be incapable of imposing a fully efficient glacial buzzsaw, emphasising that high peaks represent an important caveat to the glacial buzzsaw hypothesis.     

Human-driven topographic effects on the distribution of forest in a flat,lowland agricul-tural region简

Complex topography buffers forests against deforestation in mountainous regions. However, it is unknown if terrain also shapes forest distribution in lowlands where human impacts are likely to be less constrained by terrain. In such regions, if important at all, to- pographic effects will depend on cultural-historical factors and thus be human-driven （an- thropogenic） rather than natural, except in regions where the general climate or extreme soils limit the occurrence of forests. We used spatial regression modeling to assess the extent to which topographic factors explain forest distribution （presence-absence at a 48x48 m resolu- tion） in a lowland agricultural region （Denmark, 43,075 km2） at regional and landscape scales （whole study area and 10x10 km grid cells, respectively）, how landscape-scale for- est-topography relationships vary geographically, and which potential drivers （topographic heterogeneity, forest cover, clay content, coastal/inland location） determine this geographic heterogeneity. Given a moist temperate climate and non-extreme soils all landscapes in Denmark would naturally be largely forest covered, and any topographic relationships will be totally or primarily human-driven. At regional scale, topographic predictors explained only 5% of the distribution of forest. In contrast, the explanatory power of topography varied from 0%-61% at landscape scale, with clear geographic patterning. Explanatory power of topog- raphy at landscape scale was moderately dependent on the potential drivers, with topog- raphic control being strongest in areas with high topographic heterogeneity and little forest cover. However, these conditioning effects were themselves geographically variable. Our findings show that topography by shaping human land-use can affect forest distribution even in flat, lowland regions, but especially via localized, geographically variable effects.     

The influence of elevation, shrub species, and biological soil crust on fertile islands in the Mojave Desert, USA

We quantified soil nutrients and biological crust cover (bryophytes and lichens) under the canopies of three species of Mojave Desert shrubs and in interspaces between shrubs at three elevations to determine the effects of shrub species, soil crust, and elevation on islands of soil fertility. Means of pH, organic matter, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrogen mineralization, and gravimetric soil moisture are significantly greater in soils under Ambrosia dumosa (Gray) Payne, Larrea tridentata Cov., and Coleogyne ramosissima Torr. than soils from adjacent interspace microhabitats. Although soil moisture and soil organic matter increase by a factor of 1.5 from the low elevation to the high elevation site, the ratio of shrub to interspace concentrations, or the difference in mean soil variables between shrubs and interspaces, is effectively constant and independent of elevation. Total bryophyte and lichen cover is relatively low (24.5%), however, there are 11 species of bryophytes and two species of lichens distributed across three elevations with the highest species richness and cover at the low-elevation site. Bryophyte and lichen cover is correlated with silt but is not related, consistently, to soil nutrients. Overall, the balance of processes controlling spatial aggregation of soil nutrients under shrubs is remarkably insensitive to potential differences in organic inputs among elevations, shrub species, and soil crust surfaces.     

贵州省乌江流域人口分布与地形的关系

研究流域人口分布与地形的关系,有助于了解地理环境对人口分布的影响。以贵州省乌江流域为研究区,基于DEM数据和人口数据,提取海拔、坡度、起伏度等地形因子,研究人口分布与地形因子的关系。研究结论：① 人口数量在海拔800~1400 m的地区超过60%,人口密度在1000~1200 m的地区最高。② 人口数量与人口密度随着坡度上升总体呈下降趋势。③ 人口密度在起伏度小于50 m的地区超过1000人/km ²,人口密度随着起伏度上升总体呈下降趋势。     

洪泛平原农村居民地空间分布特征定量研究及应用探讨

通过对影响居民地空间分布因素的分析,探讨了洪泛平原农村居民地空间分布特征;利用地理信息系统技术对不同高程带内居民地分布规模、等级和空间分布密度作了定量研究,得到了居民地空间分布密度和人口空间分布密度参数;并结合洪灾淹没区居民地损失的估算,对研究结果的应用作了探讨。     

The Coyote Brush Invasion of Southern California Grasslands and the Legacy of Mechanical Disturbance

This study investigates the recent invasion of exotic grasslands by coyote brush in La Jolla Valley, California. We test the “event dependent” hypothesis that mechanical disturbances during the past century were a key cause. To examine the relationship between past mechanical disturbances and vegetation dynamics we first conducted a review of the historical literature on practices of shrub removal and documented disturbance history using historical imagery. We next analyzed vegetation‐cover change over time using remotely sensed imagery and a vegetation map to document the history of native shrub advancement into exotic grassland by species association. Finally, we determined the topographic characteristics associated with different phases of shrub advancement. We found that mechanical disturbances historically varied by topography with upper and steeper slopes being least intensively disturbed. We found that shrub advancement rates, following release from grazing, varied by slope, elevation, and time period, and that Baccharis pilularis (coyote brush) was the main species to invade the more intensively disturbed sites at lower elevations. Our results indicate that mechanical disturbances played an important role in modifying the original vegetation cover with long‐lasting consequences, including a facilitating role for the subsequent Baccharis pilularis invasion. We concluded that the practice of grazing often included exotic mechanical disturbances that had long‐lasting impacts on native plants.     

An exploration of direct and indirect drivers of herbivore reproductive performance in arid and semi arid rangelands by means of structural equation models

Climate variability affects both animal and plant populations. Understanding how this variability is modulated by topography, vegetation and population densities and how this impact on ungulate demography is an important step in order to forecast consequences of alternative management scenarios or the effects of climate change.Structural equation modeling (SEMs) is a tool particularly suited to this kind of situations, and allowed us to study the direct and indirect effects of climate, topography, structural and functional aspects of vegetation and population density upon reproductive performance of Patagonian sheep flocks, measured at paddock scale. The application of SEMs in conjunction with information criteria and related techniques for model selection, model averaging and multi-model inference revealed that despite considerable model uncertainty, those paddocks towards the East, with a greater spatial variability in July temperatures and greater primary production during fall-winter (estimated by remote sensing) showed greater lambing rates. Paddocks with higher proportion of meadows and with more intense forage consumption, were also associated with a better reproductive performance. Our results not only provide quantitative hypothesis about the controls at the landscape level of herbivore performance but also provide the basis to devise better management alternatives.     

Bedform morphology of salmon spawning areas in a large gravel-bed river

While the importance of river channel morphology to salmon spawning habitat is increasingly recognized, quantitative measures of the relationships between channel morphology and habitat use are lacking. Such quantitative measures are necessary as management and regulatory agencies within the Pacific Northwest region of the USA, and elsewhere, seek to quantify potential spawning habitat and develop recovery goals for declining salmon populations. The objective of this study was to determine if fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning areas in the Snake River, Idaho, USA, were correlated with specific bedform types at the pool–riffle scale. A bedform differencing technique was used to objectively quantify the longitudinal riverbed profile into four distinct pool–riffle units that were independent of discharge. The vertical location of thalweg points within these units was quantified with a riffle proximity index. Chinook salmon spawning areas were mapped and correlated with the pool–riffle units through the use of cross-tabulation tables. The results indicate that 84% of fall Chinook salmon spawning areas were correlated with riffles (χ² = 57.5, df = 3, p < 0.001), with 53% of those areas located on the upstream side of riffle crests. The majority of Snake River fall Chinook salmon spawning occurred at elevations greater than 80% of the difference in elevation between the nearest riffle crest and pool bottom. The analyses of bedform morphology will assist regional fish managers in quantifying existing and potential fall Chinook salmon spawning habitat, and will provide a quantitative framework for evaluating general ecological implications of channel morphology in large gravel-bed rivers.     

山区县域聚落演化的空间分异特征及其影响因素——以豫西山地嵩县为例

综合运用GIS空间分析、地形起伏度和地形位指数等方法,分析了1975-2015年嵩县聚落演化的空间分异特征,进而运用因子分析、地理探测器和多元回归分析方法研究了影响因素及其变化。得出：① 40年间嵩县聚落数量减少了将近四分之一,而聚落总规模增加1.28倍,其数量减少量以1975-1995年阶段居多,规模扩张程度以1995-2015年阶段更为显著。② 受山区地形限制聚落在空间上多沿道路和河流呈条带状分布,沿县城和乡镇中心呈团状分布,且随时间变化具有很强的路径依赖性;聚落空间分布呈现明显的低地、小地形起伏、平缓坡度和小地形位指向性,且随时间趋于向丘陵、平起伏和微起伏、坡度<6°、地形位指数<0.4地区布局;此外,聚落区位的南坡指向性和聚落规模空间分布的南坡、东南坡和西南坡指向性趋于加强。③ 聚落区位主要受地形、生产条件以及道路、乡镇中心、县城中心和工矿企业的辐射影响,但随时间变化,地形影响在减弱,而道路和乡镇中心的辐射影响在增强。④ 聚落规模空间分布受自然、社会和经济等方面因子的解释作用均较为显著并随时间有所变化,其中,地形的影响相对较大,社会经济因子中乡镇和县城中心的影响次之;但随城镇化进程的不断加快,县城中心的影响逐渐增强,而乡镇中心和地形的影响逐渐减弱。基于以上研究为山区聚落未来选址及规划布局提出几点建议。     

Body size and leg length variation in several species of darkling beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) along a rainfall and altitudinal gradient in the Negev Desert (Israel)

We studied body size (elytra length) and leg length variation in seven tenebrionid species along a rainfall and environmental gradient from the Ramon erosion cirque (Israel). Body size was not correlated with altitude in three species, while four species demonstrated changes in body size with altitude. Three species decreased their body size along the altitudinal gradient, whereasSepidium dathandemonstrated the opposite trend. The pattern of variation of body size along the altitudinal gradient inAdesmia metallica, Erodius edomitusandZophosis complanatamay be explained by ambient temperature rather than productivity variation. Neither elevation nor species abundance affected variance in body size of any species. Femur length changed significantly along the altitudinal gradient inA. metallicaonly. Both males and females had relatively longer legs in low elevations and relatively shorter legs in high elevations. Individuals with the longest legs were recorded on soils with low clay and high rock and gravel content. The texture of the soil had no noticeable effect on the leg length of all other beetle species.     

基于乡镇尺度的中国25省区人口分布特征及影响因素

人口空间分布具有典型的尺度特征,精细尺度的人口分布是当前人口地理学研究的热点和难点。乡镇（街道）是中国人口普查数据公开发布的最小行政单元,乡镇级人口密度计算及其分布特征研究能够更客观、精细地刻画中国人口分布的空间格局和态势,为促进中国人口的合理优化布局提供科学依据和决策支持。本文收集处理了2000年中国25个省（直辖市、自治区）的乡镇（街道）级行政边界数据,基于第五次人口普查乡镇（街道）人口统计数据,计算了乡镇级平均人口密度。采用Lorenz曲线、空间分析及样带分析的方法,分析了研究区乡镇（街道）人口分布的疏密结构、空间集聚性、纬向和经向规律。利用相关分析和逐步回归分析,分省探究了地形起伏度、水网密度、路网密度及社会经济发展水平（利用夜间灯光指数表征）等4个因素对于乡镇级人口分布的影响。研究表明：① 乡镇级平均人口密度能够有效区分出县域内部的人口密度高低差异,整体不均衡性高于基于县级平均人口密度的研究结果;② 乡镇（街道）人口分布总体规律是西北稀疏东南密集,同时,东南密中有疏,西北疏中有密;③ 乡镇（街道）人口分布的经纬向规律变异较大,既受中国三级阶梯地貌大势的影响,也受局部微地形及区域中心城市的影响,并和海岸线、交通枢纽及大江大河的分布具有一定的空间耦合性。④ 乡镇级平均人口密度与地形起伏度、水网密度、路网密度及夜间灯光指数等显著相关,省级平均相关系数分别为-0.56、0.28、0.61、0.69。⑤ 在乡镇尺度上,地形条件及区域发展水平对辽、吉、京、津、沪、冀、豫、陕、晋、鲁、皖、苏、湘、鄂、赣、浙、闽、粤、琼等省份的人口分布具有较强的决定作用。⑥ 对于藏、青、蒙、滇、黔等5省或自治区,需要引入更多的自然环境及社会因素来解释其人口分布的特殊规律。本研究扩充了中国人口地理学的研究尺度和维度,并引入了新的定量分析和空间分析方法,所构建的覆盖中国25省（直辖市、自治区）的乡镇（街道）级人口分布科学数据集丰富了中国人口地理学的2000年本底数据资源。     

走向空间的人口学研究：西方空间人口学研究的回顾、评价与展望

空间是人口学研究的固有维度,20世纪50年代以来,西方学者已开始从空间视角探究人口问题。近年来,随着计算机技术和空间分析方法的提升,西方空间人口学研究发展迅速,逐渐走向成熟化与体系化,成为人口学研究的重要方向。我国人口学在空间维度上的分析虽然已有“胡焕庸线”等经典成果,但具体到空间人口学这一学科进展方面,仍需对空间人口学中的核心概念进行辨析,并阐述空间人口学与人口地理学的关系。本文首先简述西方空间人口学的起源、发展与演化,并从分异与隔离、生育与死亡、迁移与城镇化、区域人口预测、人口与环境等5大主题对跨世纪以来西方空间人口学研究进行梳理。此外,本文归纳了空间人口学研究的主要方法。最后,对空间人口学未来研究方向进行展望,并对国内空间人口学研究提出建议。     

南海西沙海域甘泉海台的阶梯状地形

通过多波束水深资料,研究了南海西沙海域甘泉海台地形特征。甘泉海台顶面平坦,坡度通常＜1°,但存在3级阶梯状地形,水深范围介于550~700 m,这3级阶梯状地形总体向南西倾斜。在600~850 m水深范围内,甘泉海台普遍发育水下阶地,识别出的水下阶地多达5级,其中西侧阶地发育程度优于东侧。初步认为：甘泉海台顶部和周缘阶梯状地形是冰期―间冰期旋回尺度上全球海平面变化和南海地壳沉降共同作用的结果,这２个因素可能也控制着南海其他珊瑚礁的发育演化。在850~1 300 m水深范围内,甘泉海台周缘存在倒石堆状地形,推测主要是珊瑚礁碎屑从礁顶搬运沉积的产物,甘泉海台西北侧比东南侧倒石堆地形更加发育的现象估计与甘泉海台顶面向南西倾斜直接相关。     

Complexity in a cellular model of river avulsion

We propose a new model of river avulsion that emphasizes simplicity, self-organization, and unprogrammed behavior rather than detailed simulation. The model runs on a fixed cellular grid and tracks two elevations in each cell, a high elevation representing the channel (levee) top and a low one representing the channel bottom. The channel aggrades in place until a superelevation threshold for avulsion is met. After an avulsion is triggered a new flow path is selected by steepest descent based on the low values of elevation. Flow path depends sensitively on floodplain topography, particularly the presence of former abandoned channels. Several behavioral characteristics emerge consistently from this simple model: (1) a tendency of the active flow to switch among a small number of channel paths, which we term the active channel set, over extended periods, leading to clustering and formation of multistory sand bodies in the resulting deposits; (2) a tendency for avulsed channels to return to their previous paths, so that new channel length tends to be generated in relatively short segments; and (3) avulsion-related sediment storage and release, leading to pulsed sediment output even for constant input. Each of these behaviors is consistent with observations from depositional river systems. A single-valued threshold produces a wide variety of avulsion sizes and styles. Larger “nodal” avulsions are rarer because pre-existing floodplain topography acts to steer flow back to the active channel. Channel stacking pattern is very sensitive to floodplain deposition. This work highlights the need to develop models of floodplain evolution at large time and space scales to complement the improving models of river channel evolution.     

The reduction of aliasing in gravity anomalies and geoid heights using digital terrain data

Observations of gravity can be aliased by virtue of the logistics involved in collecting these data in the field. For instance, gravity measurements are often made in more accessible lowland areas where there are roads and tracks, thus omitting areas of higher relief in between. The gravimetric determination of the geoid requires mean terrain-corrected free-air anomalies; however, anomalies based only on the observations in lowland regions are not necessarily representative of the true mean value over the topography. A five-stage approach is taken that uses a digital elevation model, which provides a more accurate representation of the topography than the gravity observation elevations, to reduce the unrepresentative sampling in the gravity observations. When using this approach with the Australian digital elevation model, the terrain-corrected free-air anomalies generated from the Australian gravity data base change by between 77.075 and −84.335 mgal (−0.193 mgal mean and 2.687 mgal standard deviation). Subsequent gravimetric geoid computations are used to illustrate the effect of aliasing in the Australian gravity data upon the geoid. The difference between 'aliased' and 'non-aliased' gravimetric geoid solutions varies by between 0.732 and −1.816 m (−0.058 m mean and 0.122 m standard deviation). Based on these conceptual arguments and numerical results, it is recommended that supplementary digital elevation information be included during the estimation of mean gravity anomalies prior to the computation of a gravimetric geoid model.