Promoting local management in groundwater

There is a strong case for making greater effort to promote local groundwater management—in addition to other measures that regulate groundwater use. Though scattered, there are several examples—from India, Pakistan, Yemen and Egypt—where groundwater users effectively self-imposed restrictions on the use of groundwater. There are a number of recurrent themes in such spontaneously-developed examples of local regulation: the importance of not excluding potential users; the importance of simple, low transaction cost rules; the power of correct and accessible hydrogeological information; the possibility of making more use of demand and supply management strategies; and the important supportive role of local governments. The case is made, using examples, for actively promoting local groundwater management as an important element in balancing groundwater uses. Two programmes for promoting local groundwater management in South India are described—one focussing on participatory hydrological monitoring, and one focussing on micro-resource planning and training. In both cases the response was very positive and the conclusion is that promoting local groundwater regulation is not difficult, costly or sensitive and can reach the necessary scale quickly.     

The role of groundwater governance in emergencies during different phases of natural disasters

The establishment of water governance in emergency situations supports timely and effective reaction with regard to the risk and impact of natural disasters on drinking-water supplies and populations. Under such governance, emergency activities of governmental authorities, rescue and aid teams, water stakeholders, local communities and individuals are coordinated with the objective to prevent and/or mitigate disaster impact on water supplies, to reduce human suffering due to drinking-water failure during and in the post-disaster period, and to manage drinking-water services in emergency situations in an equitable manner. The availability of low-vulnerability groundwater resources that have been proven safe and protected by geological features, and with long residence time, can make water-related relief and rehabilitation activities during and after an emergency more rapid and effective. Such groundwater resources have to be included in water governance and their exploration must be coordinated with overall management of drinking-water services in emergencies. This paper discusses institutional and technical capacities needed for building effective groundwater governance policy and drinking-water risk and demand management in emergencies. Disaster-risk mitigation plans are described, along with relief measures and post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction activities, which support gradual renewal of drinking-water services on the level prior to the disaster. The role of groundwater governance in emergencies differs in individual phases of disaster (preparedness, warning, impact/relief, rehabilitation). Suggested activities and actions associated with these phases are summarized and analysed, and a mode of their implementation is proposed.     

Hydrodynamic modeling for groundwater assessment in Sana’a Basin, Yemen

Yemen is a semi-arid country with very limited water resources. Sana’a Basin is located in the central part of Yemen and is the major source of water for drinking and irrigation. High abstraction rates in Sana’a Basin rising from 21.1 million (M) m³ in 1972 to 227.7?Mm³ in 2006, have led to a major decline in water levels and deterioration in groundwater quality. Effective management of groundwater resources in Sana’a Basin can be aided by modelling. FEFLOW was used to build a groundwater flow model for the basin and the model was calibrated under transient conditions for the period 1972–2006. The water balance for transient conditions of the Sana’a Basin in 2006 indicated that the total annual inflow was 116.9?Mm³, and the total annual outflow was 245.8?Mm³. Three scenarios for potential groundwater extraction for the period 2006–2020 are presented. The first represents the present status based on the 2006 extraction rates without introducing any management measures. The second is based on maximum domestic, agricultural and industrial consumption of water resources. The third simulates the effect of water-resource augmentation, i.e. the increase of groundwater recharge, and maximizes sustainability by reducing water consumption. Identified areas of the basin require prompt management action.     

Governance of disaster emergency wells in three cities in Japan affected by earthquakes

Concern has grown regarding how public and private sectors should make effective use of local groundwater to alleviate negative impacts of water-supply cutoff following an earthquake event, which can be regarded as an emergency groundwater governance problem. Existing literature on groundwater governance, however, is based on the tacit assumption of groundwater utilization under normal social conditions, and scant consideration has been given to the role of groundwater following occurrence of a natural disaster. This study conducted questionnaire surveys to reveal how groundwater was used in three cities (Kumamoto, Sapporo, and Sendai) in Japan struck by large earthquakes between 2010 and 2020. Results revealed substantial differences between these cities in terms of groundwater utilization following earthquake occurrence. The time between the restoration of the electricity supply and restoration of the waterworks, and the social capital accumulated by local governments, are indicated as possible reasons for such differences. Analysis also identified policy challenges for improved groundwater governance in an emergency: (1) establishment of a strategy for emergency water supply through combined use of groundwater and other water sources, (2) enhancement of methods for timely inspection of groundwater quality following occurrence of a disaster, (3) maintenance of records of the number of registered disaster emergency wells (DEWs), (4) creation of methods for publicizing locational information on DEWs with adequate regard for the privacy of well owners, and (5) recognition of the importance of making DEWs part of overall disaster preparedness.

     

Using local knowledge to improve understanding of groundwater supplies in parts of arid South Australia

Developing a good working knowledge of water in the landscape and the connectivity between surface and groundwater is germane to a resilient sustainable water supply to sustain human activities and a healthy environment, particularly in the drier parts of Australia. This paper presents a case study in the semi-arid Flinders Ranges of South Australia in which eliciting local knowledge from landholders was a key element in mapping surface and groundwater and investigating the connectivity between water resources. Local landholders provided a vital source of information to augment the limited scientific data initially available on groundwater resources. Groundwater recharge in the region comes from local rainfall onto individual unconnected groundwater catchments. In most of the region water supply seems to have been maintained over the longer term but there are a number of sites where former active springs are now dry or much reduced in size and water supplies from bores have substantially changed in quantity and quality. The involvement of landholders in the investigation of water resources encouraged them to consider the resource context of their stock watering points and incorporate more science into their understanding of the water resources that they rely on. This stimulated interest in investigating more about local water resources and changes in water management practices.     

Modelling groundwater over-extraction in the southern Jordan Valley with scarce data

To deal with the challenge of groundwater over-extraction in arid and semi-arid environments, it is necessary to establish management strategies based on the knowledge of hydrogeological conditions, which can be difficult in places where hydrogeological data are dispersed, scarce or present potential misinformation. Groundwater levels in the southern Jordan Valley (Jordan) have decreased drastically in the last three decades, caused by over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation purposes. This study presents a local, two-dimensional and transient numerical groundwater model, using MODFLOW, to characterise the groundwater system and the water balance in the southern Jordan Valley. Furthermore, scenarios are simulated regarding hydrological conditions and management options, like extension of arable land and closure of illegal wells, influencing the projection of groundwater extraction. A limited dataset, literature values, field surveys, and the ‘crop water-requirement method’ are combined to determine boundary conditions, aquifer parameters, and sources and sinks. The model results show good agreement between predicted and observed values; groundwater-level contours agree with the conceptual model and expected flow direction, and, in terms of water balance, flow volumes are in accordance with literature values. Average annual water consumption for irrigation is estimated to be 29 million m³ and simulation results show that a reduction of groundwater pumping by 40% could recover groundwater heads, reducing the water taken from storage. This study presents an example of how to develop a local numerical groundwater model to support management strategies under the condition of data scarcity.     

河西走廊内陆河流域农户地下水使用的影响因素分析

在农业与生态系统用水相矛盾的干旱内陆区,地下水过度开采导致生态环境急剧恶化。以往对地下水的管理,以政府直接控制地下水使用为主,但效果并不十分理想,或管理成本较大。因此,寻求间接调控地下水使用的措施成为更好的选择。以河西走廊的石羊河、黑河和疏勒河流域为例,以农户问卷调查数据为依据,探究影响农户使用地下水的关键因素,以寻求通过制定更有针对性的政策来影响农户节约并高效利用地下水,最终达到农户自下而上自发节水的效果。分析结果发现：农户对地下水的使用在不同阶段有不同的特征,但均强烈地依赖于地表水供给,地表水供给每增加1个轮次,单位公顷耕地地表水用量会增加237.3 m³,相应会减少795.2 m³的地下水,整体上平均减少504.1 m³的总用水量,地下水占灌溉总用水的比例也会下降3.7%。此外,地下水的使用还与家庭经营规模、经营模式、地下水供给条件及经营者偏好等因素密切相关。因此,政府应根据流域内地表水与地下水的综合条件和特点,结合农业生产特征和农户偏好,因地制宜制定政府主导的管理政策与农户自我调节能力有效结合的开发治理制度和方案,切实实现区域水资源节约与高效利用双重目标。     

Water governance in New Mexico: Adjudication,law, and geography

Water rights adjudications lie at the intersection of law, space, and the geography of resource governance, combining elements of field cartography, archival research, and judicial supervision and decree. However, few geographers have examined the water rights adjudications now active in most western US states. Using case material and ethnographic vignettes from a larger geographic project on water rights and governance in New Mexico, I examine water adjudication as a vital instrument in the state’s pursuit of spatial knowledge. Resources and water users are seen by the state through this process, while at the same time, water users may elude or confuse state legibility. In this process, altered forms of governance are produced. Here, I explore how the formalizing of water rights in New Mexico has articulated new legal-spatial relationships, which are often viewed differently by state and local agents. I then examine the products of adjudications and the tension between local and expert knowledge in natural resources governance over being seen and governed by the state and the struggle to retain local autonomy and governance in water management.     

Recharge and contamination sources of shallow and deep groundwater of pleistocene aquifer in El-Sadat industrial city: isotope and hydrochemical approaches

Hydrochemical and isotopic researches were conducted in El-Sadat City groundwater system to identify groundwater alteration, recharge, residence time and extent of pollution. The groundwater salinity gradually increases as the groundwater moves from northeastern to southwestern parts of the city. Groundwater generally shows mineralization decreasing with depth, indicating that the possibility of recent water penetration far below the surface is limited. Shallow groundwater has an elevated level of nitrate, which is attributed to anthropogenic sources due to intensive agricultural activity. The limit of high nitrate water may mark the maximum penetration of groundwater from the surface, which is found in depths <100 m. The northeastern and southwestern industrial areas are highly contaminated by some heavy metals, which may originate from some local industrial effluents. The sewage oxidation ponds seem to show no effect on groundwater; hence, these ponds are not a point source for these heavy metals. Dissolved ions depict five different hydrochemical facies, and stable isotopes define the recharge mechanisms, the origin of groundwater and the hydraulic confinement of deep groundwater. The deep groundwater is untritiated and has long residence times (in the order of thousands of years). Three different hydrochemical groups have been recognized and mapped in El-Sadat City, based on the chemical and isotopic information of the groundwater. These groups have different levels of contamination. The deep groundwater samples are significantly less impacted by surface activities and it appears that these important water resources have very low recharge rates and would, therefore, be severely impacted by overabstraction. The extensive exploitation of groundwater for drinking water supply would shortly be reflected by a gradual decline of the groundwater table in El-Sadat City. Amelioration of groundwater quality requires further management strategies and efforts in the forthcoming years.     

International Development Trend Analysis of Water Governance Based on Bibliometrics

Water resources issue is affecting regional stability and national relationship, which has become a vital issue. Based on SCIE papers from database of Web of Science, we analyze the international development trend of water governance research using the bibliometric analysis method. The results show that the number of publications in this field has been increasing rapidly since the 1990s. Most of the research subjects are interdisciplinary and mainly focus on the field of water resources and environmental science. Base on publications and its cited, the United States has the absolute advantage in total numbers of papers, but the articles has a low average influence in terms of citations; The total number of papers in China on water governance research ranks 10th among major countries in the world, but all papers in this field are cited, ranking second only to Germany. International water governance research focuses on water resource acquisition and water quality assessment, water vulnerability, adaptation and water demanding related to climate change; decision-making, water governance policies and water rights; water resource management, such as groundwater management, watershed management and comprehensive water resources management; global water governance and urban water crisis.     

Contesting expertise: The politics of environmental knowledge in northern Indian groundwater practices

The world is facing a severe water crisis. According to the UN, by 2025 50% of the world’s population will face water scarcity. In India, where 70% of irrigation and 80% of domestic needs are met with groundwater, demand for this resource is expected to exceed supply by 2020. This has led to recent calls for groundwater governance reforms within India, and specifically within the state of Rajasthan, where no regulation exists today. The success of these reforms hinges on the interaction of the state and its agents with local users and managers of groundwater resources. Underpinning these encounters, though, are tensions between local and state forms of groundwater knowledges. The question analyzed here is in what ways do conflicting environmental knowledges adversely affect the management of overexploited groundwater resources in water-scarce India? To address this question, I examine the coevolution of pre-colonial, colonial, and post-independence groundwater and irrigation knowledges and technologies in Rajasthan, India to expose the ways that they are produced, contested, legitimated, and hybridized. The paper argues the following three claims. First, the relationship between the state and local producers of groundwater knowledge practices is non-linear and porous. For instance, the way that state subjects experience the state is uneven because within and in-between historical moments the state may attempt to assimilate, reorganize, plagiarize, or disparage local knowledge. Second, these attempts produce or exacerbate existing historically rooted tensions between farmers and state groundwater engineers. But in response, farmers often seek out non-state avenues of expertise, such as tubewell drilling firms. This results in the further hybridization of knowledge practices and also in the present-day marginalization of the state. Third, the relationship between farmers and the state is further strained because of a current lack of state visibility in the study area and also because the state continues to “see like a state”. These shifting meanings and power relations around groundwater and irrigation knowledges produce tensions that will undoubtedly negatively impact future groundwater governance strategies.     

Improving school children’s understanding of water scarcity with a co-produced book on groundwater in Central Chile

Water scarcity is a critical issue worldwide, and Chile is no exception. Since 2010, Central Chile has been enduring an ongoing water crisis due to the coupled effects of a severe drought and the overuse of water resources, especially groundwater. Rural communities have been strongly impacted, mainly because wells from which drinking water is supplied show a dramatic drop in water levels, and some have even dried up. The water scarcity scenario requires the integration of actors and disciplines to increase awareness of groundwater; however, how to make this valuable element visible in society is an issue that remains open to debate. This paper describes and reflects on the process of making educational material about groundwater and water scarcity for children to promote public awareness. Based on transdisciplinary and co-designing processes, this work describes the social perceptions of groundwater among children and community leaders, as well as how scientific information and local knowledge of water scarcity could be integrated into a book for the young population. This research finds that educational projects on groundwater resources increase people’s awareness of the role of this hidden resource in the water cycle. Such projects encourage the creation of grounded and contextualised materials that incorporate the knowledge and experience already present in the communities, increasing public awareness of the role of groundwater and associated water scarcity issues, thereby integrating academia and society. This approach could be a tool to lay the foundations for successfully addressing the water crisis in Chile over generations.

     

The Dammam aquifer in Bahrain – Hydrochemical characterization and alternatives for management of groundwater quality

 Over-abstraction of the Dammam aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, by the agricultural and domestic sectors, has led to its salinization by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies. A hydrochemical study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer salinization and delineated their areas of influence. The investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is significantly modified as groundwater flows from the northwestern parts of Bahrain, where the aquifer receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia, to the southern and southeastern parts. Four types of salinization of the aquifer are identified: brackish-water up-flow from the underlying brackish-water zones in north-central, western, and eastern regions; seawater intrusion in the eastern region; intrusion of sabkha water in the southwestern region; and irrigation return flow in a local area in the western region. Four alternatives for the management of groundwater quality that are available to the water authorities in Bahrain are discussed and their priority areas are proposed, based on the type and extent of each salinization source, in addition to groundwater use in that area. The effectiveness of the proposed management options in controlling the degradation of water quality in the Dammam aquifer should be evaluated using simulation modeling. Received: June 1998 Revised: November 1998 Accepted: December 1998     

Conservation planning as an adaptive strategy for climate change and groundwater depletion in Wadi El Natrun,Egypt

In drylands, groundwater is often the sole source of freshwater for industrial, domestic and agricultural uses, while concurrently supporting ecosystems. Many dryland aquifers are becoming depleted due to over-pumping and a lack of natural recharge, resulting in loss of storage and future water supplies, water-level declines that reduce access to freshwater, water quality problems, and, in extreme cases, geologic hazards. Conservation is often proposed as a strategy for managing groundwater to reduce or reverse the depletion, although there is a need to better understand its potential effectiveness and benefits at the local scale. This study assesses the impact of water-conservation planning strategies on groundwater resources in the Wadi El Natrun (WEN) area of northern Egypt. WEN has been subjected to groundwater depletion and quality degradation since the 1990s, attributed to agricultural and industrial groundwater usage. Initiatives have been proposed to increase the sustainability of the groundwater resource in the study area, but they have yet to be evaluated. Simultaneously, there are also proposals to increase the extent of arable land and thus demand for freshwater. In this study, three water management scenarios are developed and assessed to the 2060s for their impact on groundwater resources using a hydrogeologic model. Results demonstrate that demand management implemented through an optimized irrigation and crop rotation strategy has the greatest potential to significantly reduce risk of groundwater depletion compared to the other two scenarios—“business as usual” and “30% water-use reduction”—that were evaluated.     

Assessment and geospatial distribution mapping of fluoride concentrations in the groundwater of Al-Howban Basin,Taiz-Yemen

Groundwater is one of the most important natural resources of drinking water on the earth planet. In rural areas of Yemen, groundwater is the main resource for drinking as well as for domestic purposes. According to the World Health Organization, one of the most important elements that has to be found in drinking water is fluorine (fluoride) but within the range of concentration of 0.5 up to 1.5 mg/l. Otherwise, any concentration of fluoride out of that range may cause serious diseases in human’s body such as fluorosis, kidney chronic disease, and/or nephrotoxicity. Taiz City, the third important and largest city in Yemen, has been suffering from dental fluorosis for a few decades. The main resource for drinking water in this city and adjacent areas is Al-Howban Basin (the study area) from where 33 groundwater samples were collected from 33 stations. These samples were preserved and then chemically analyzed according to the American Public Health Association Standards. The results reflected high levels of fluoride concentrations up to 3.6 mg/l in groundwater of many stations. GIS mapping was used to produce a geospatial distribution map of fluoride concentrations using ArcGIS-inverse distance weighted (IDW) tool. As a result, three zones of risks were identified in the study area: mild risk zone which covers the major part of the study area, moderate risk zone, and zone of no risk (optimum level zone). The last two zones occupy small portions of the study area. Consequently, dental and skeletal fluorosis, kidney, and/or nephrotoxic diseases are highly expected to be detected in the study area. Groundwater treatment measurements and health precautions are strongly recommended to be taken by local authorities in the near future.     

Impact of peatland drainage and restoration on esker groundwater resources: modeling future scenarios for management

Esker aquifers are common groundwater bodies in Europe. Management of these aquifers should take account of the sustainability of groundwater-dependent ecosystems and land use in an integrated way. An unconfined esker aquifer in northern Finland was modelled with MODFLOW to determine how groundwater resources are impacted by the surrounding peatland drainage scheme and to simulate scenarios for possible drainage restoration. The impacts of groundwater abstraction and climate change were also simulated. A calibration-constrained Monte Carlo method was used to provide information on the uncertainties associated with model predictions. The results suggest that peatland drainage in the vicinity of eskers can have a significant role in lowering the water table, even though climate variability may mask these impacts. Drainage restoration by filling the ditches might have positive impacts on the aquifer water levels. Comparison of water-table changes caused by peatland drainage with the changes brought by water abstraction and climate variability helped to quantify impacts of different land-use scenarios and facilitated discussion with the local stakeholders. Based on this study, more attention should be devoted to peatland drainage schemes in integrated groundwater management of esker aquifers.     

Groundwater quality of Yemen volcanic terrain and their geological and geochemical controls

One hundred thirty boreholes of volcanic aquifers in rural Yemen Highland Groundwaters (YHGs) were chemically investigated to assess the suitability of water for drinking. Focus is to identify inorganic constituents of significant risk to health that occur in groundwaters of this area. Results showed that a number of boreholes contain, apart from fluoride, levels of nitrate, some heavy metals, total dissolved solids, and sulfates that could pose a health risk for consumers. The lateral variations of major ions with depth varied within the same aquifer based on the dynamic equilibrium of groundwater and hydrogeological conditions. The main inorganic groundwater contaminant in volcanic YHG is fluoride which is attributed to groundwater lithology and water type. Fluoride appears high in Ca-poor groundwater and where cation exchanges of Ca for Na are dominant. High F concentration in YHG is an extension of East African fluoride-rich groundwater. Majority of tube wells show that Fe concentration exceeds WHO guideline many folds. Much of the iron and manganese in groundwaters are naturally occurring, since the source rocks are enriched in ferromagnesian minerals. NO ₃ ^? and Cl^? concentrations that have been detected in some wells may indicate sewage and/or agricultural runoff. Elevated concentration of chemical constituents in groundwater is a sign of groundwater degradation.     

A critical overview of transboundary aquifers shared by South Africa

Transboundary groundwater commonly implies a body of groundwater intersected by a political border with the attendant potential threat of dispute over a shared resource. This definition is inadequate in many parts of southern Africa. Approximately 96% of South Africa’s borders are underlain by low-yielding aquifers and, coupled with a low demand for water attendant on low population density, the risk of over-pumping or pollution leading to dispute is low, and a modified understanding is required. Examples of transboundary aquifers are used to illustrate implications for policy and management of southern African transboundary groundwater resources, where transmissivities are low and, less commonly, where over-pumping may indeed be a problem. The general lack of technical cooperation, data sharing, training and research between the riparian states on hydrogeology hampers a mutual understanding of the resources. The concept of transboundary groundwater must necessarily include aquifers where little cross-border flow occurs, but where cross-border cooperation will help to ensure sustainable cooperative utilisation of shared aquifer resources. This is imperative if future disputes are to be averted. Agreement between scientists is a necessary precursor to broader transnational governance agreements in regard to shared water resources, and recent initiatives by the Orange-Senqu River Commission promise closer integration.     

Navigating the tensions in collaborative watershed governance: Water governance and Indigenous communities in British Columbia,Canada

First Nations in British Columbia (BC), Canada, have historically been—and largely continue to be—excluded from colonial governments’ decision-making and management frameworks for fresh water. However, in light of recent legal and legislative changes, and also changes in water governance and policy, there is growing emphasis in scholarship and among legal, policy and advocacy communities on shifting water governance away from a centralized single authority towards an approach that is watershed-based, collaborative, and involves First Nations as central to decision-making processes. Drawing on community-based research, interviews with First Nations natural resource staff and community members, and document review, the paper analyzes the tensions in collaborative water governance, by identifying First Nations’ concerns within the current water governance system and exploring how a move towards collaborative watershed governance may serve to either address, or further entrench, these concerns. This paper concludes with recommendations for collaborative water governance frameworks which are specifically focused on British Columbia, but which have relevance to broader debates over Indigenous water governance.     

Groundwater sustainability indicators in parts of Tiruppur and Coimbatore districts,Tamil Nadu

The present study emphasizes the use of groundwater sustainability indicators, developed to assess the sustainability of the aquifer in Uppar Odai sub-basin located in part of Tiruppur and Coimbatore districts, Tamil Nadu. There are seven indicators discussed based on their relevance in groundwater sustainability. In most parts of the subbasin, groundwater development already exceeds 80% of the groundwater recharge. The results have shown that the sub-basin area has been contaminated with low hazard pollutant such as nitrate and fluoride. In addition, about 28% and 32% of the sub-basin area respectively is not suitable for irrigation. The analysis of water level data for the last 42 years has shown decline in water table. However, the water level condition has improved in the recent years due to water conservation measures. The basin requires necessary groundwater planning and management to maintain sustainable aquifer condition.