Land subsidence along the northeastern Texas Gulf coast: Effects of deep hydrocarbon production

The Texas Gulf of Mexico coast is experiencing high (5–11 mm/yr) rates of relative sea level (RSL) rise that are the sum of subsidence and eustatic sea level (ESL) rise. Even higher rates are associated with areas of groundwater pumping from confined aquifers. We investigate the possibility of deep petroleum production as a cause for the high regional rates of subsidence. The northeast Texas coast was chosen for the study because it has a high rate of RSL rise, very limited groundwater production, and a long history of petroleum production. We examine in detail the Big Hill and Fannett fields, for which adequate bottom hole pressure (BHP) and well log data are available. The hypothesis of deep petroleum production is tested in three ways. First, industry BHP tests show many of the fields are depressurized to far below hydrostatic pressures. Second, analysis of BHP data over time in the Big Hill and Fannett fields indicates that some Zones in these fields were below hydrostatic when production commenced. This indicates that depressurization from production in neighboring fields or zones within the same field is not limited to the production zone. Third, three models for subsidence (a general 1-D regional model, an intrareservoir model, and a reservoir bounding layer model), using reasonable hydrogeological parameters, predict subsidence within the inferred range of data. The latter two models use data from the Big Hill and Fannett fields. Additional verification of the hypothesis that deep petroleum production is causing or accelerating regional subsidence will require the collection and analysis of data on the subsurface hydrogeological parameters and detailed measurements of the spatial and temporal distribution of subsidence along the Texas Coast.     

准噶尔盆地油气运移基本方式与机理探讨

在准噶尔盆地,以断裂为主,联合输导层(储层和不整合)的“断控体系”是油气运移的基本固体格架。文中从油气形成和演化过程中的有机-无机相互作用入手,分析了准噶尔盆地油气运移的基本方式和机理。结果表明,油气在输导层运移过程中,随有机质热演化、成岩演化,以及距油源断裂的远近不同,伴随着的水量有着显著变化。流体性质的差异导致了不同的储层水岩反应和油气成藏机制,据此,可将油气在输导层中的运移方式划分出两种基本类型:机械-侵蚀型和机械型。而在断裂带地区,断裂对储层中高压流体系统的沟通,触发了“减压沸腾”作用,伴随着流体沸腾,油气呈幕式运移聚集。     

塔里木盆地麦盖提斜坡及周缘断裂 及其对油气成藏的控制作用

麦盖提斜坡是塔里木盆地西南坳陷的一个次级构造单元,经历多期构造运动和翘倾活动,形成多期断裂活动和复杂的构造变形。这些断裂对研究区的油气成藏有直接的控制作用。本文在大量地震解释基础上,对断裂的期次、性质进行系统厘定;然后,分析其构造样式,落实其平面展布;进而,结合前人对主力烃源岩和成藏期次的研究结果和钻探资料,将断裂划分为沟通油气源断裂、岩溶期断裂、主成藏期断裂、成藏调整期断裂等4大断裂体系;最后,刻画4大断裂体系分布与作用范围。这些断裂构造分析成果,为麦盖提斜坡油气成藏规律研究奠定基础。     

歧口凹陷复式含油气系统及构造控藏模式

构造层序和沉降史分析表明,歧口凹陷在新生代具有显著的幕式构造-沉积演化特征,经历了古近纪裂陷期和新近纪裂后期二个构造活动期、古近纪的裂陷Ⅰ幕和Ⅱ幕、新近纪的稳定热沉降幕和加速沉降幕四幕构造运动。结合凹陷内部重要的构造转换界面、结构和构造演化特点,以及各阶段构造样式和油气成藏聚集规律,将歧口凹陷划分为四大含油气系统:孔店断陷-潜山型含油气系统(Ek)、歧口陡坡断阶型含油气系统(Es)、歧口缓坡断阶型含油气系统(Es1+Ed)、歧口坳陷型含油气系统(N)。通过构造组合样式和油气聚集关系研究,建立了凹陷内部掀斜断块-地垒潜山和凹陷边缘断阶-古隆起披覆潜山构造控藏模式。     

大港油田板桥凹陷构造变换带与油气富集*

在伸展断陷盆地中,构造变换带对油气具有重要的控制作用,其附近往往是油气富集的有利部位。伸展断裂沿走向上发生伸展量呈消长关系变化的部位通常是构造变换带发育的部位。由于地层的沉降幅度在构造变换带附近具有减小的趋势,沿构造变换带走向上地层沉降幅度的差异造成了大港油田板桥凹陷“凸、凹相间”的构造古地理格局。构造变换带附近往往发育断鼻等正向构造,因此,构造变换带也常常是油气富集的有利部位。研究发现,板桥凹陷构造变换带较为发育,且其附近断鼻构造圈闭发育,并处于生烃洼陷之中,因此,构造变换带成为板桥凹陷油气较为富集的有利部位。     

应用地球化学方法评价断层的封闭性

断层的封闭性和连通性研究对于了解断层在油气成藏和石油开发中的影响具有重要的意义.根据断层附近油藏的地球化学特征, 可以研究排烃期断层的封闭性.在涠西南凹陷油田的研究工作中, 通过断层两端油层的化学组成指纹的差异, 证实了断层的存在, 虽然断距较小, 但仍影响了油藏的连通.对欧利坨子地区靠近断层的油藏分析表明, 本区的深大断裂可以作为油气的有效通道, 靠近断层油藏成熟度较高, 且含氮化合物较丰富.本研究提供的2个实例证实地球化学方法用于判断断层的封闭性有着不可替代的优越性.      

Anthropogenic subsidence in the Mexicali Valley,Baja California,Mexico, and slip on the Saltillo fault

Deep fluid extraction in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field (CPGF) has caused subsidence and induced slip on tectonic faults in the Mexicali Valley (Baja California, Mexico). The Mexicali Valley is located in the southern part of the Salton Trough, at the boundary between the Pacific and North American plates. The Valley is characterized by being a zone of continuous tectonic deformation, geothermal activity, and seismicity. Within the Cerro Prieto pull-apart basin, seismicity is concentrated mainly in swarms, while strong earthquakes have occurred in the Imperial and Cerro Prieto transform faults, that are the eastern and western bound of the basin. Since 1973, fluid extraction at the CPGF has influenced deformation in the area, accelerating the subsidence and causing rupture (frequently as vertical slip or creep) on the surface traces of tectonic faults. Both subsidence and fault slip are causing damage to infrastructure like roads, railroad tracks, irrigation channels, and agricultural fields. Currently, accelerated extraction in the eastern part of CPGF has shifted eastwards the area of most pronounced subsidence rate; this accelerated subsidence can be observed at the Saltillo fault, a southern branch of the Imperial fault in the Mexicali Valley. Published leveling data, together with field data from geological surveys, geotechnical instruments, and new InSAR images were used to model the observed deformation in the area in terms of fluid extraction. Since the electricity production in the CPGF is an indispensable part of Baja California economy, extraction is sure to continue and may probably increase, so that the problem of damages caused by subsidence will likely increase in the future.     

断裂控烃理论与油气勘探实践

断裂控烃理论认为, 断裂是叠合含油气盆地控制油气生运聚散和分布的根本原因; 断裂与油气藏的关系是枝与果、藤与瓜的关系; 科学的勘探思路是以断裂为基本线索, “沿枝(断裂) 摘果(油气藏), 顺藤(断裂) 摸瓜(油气藏) ”.运用断裂控烃理论研究表明, 北塘凹陷塘沽潜山油源断裂发育, 潜山油气藏成藏条件良好, 值得重视; 柴达木盆地的腹地控烃断裂发育, 资源潜力巨大, 具备形成大型、特大型油气藏的地质条件, 为油气勘探大转移提供了依据; 断裂控烃理论为HNFS凹陷找到了主力生排烃洼陷, 开辟了新的油气勘探领域.      

塔里木盆地巴楚-麦盖提地区志留-泥盆系油气成藏规律

塔里木盆地巴楚-麦盖提地区以寒武-奥陶系海相碳酸盐岩为烃源岩,志留-泥盆系三角洲-- 滨岸砂岩为储层,潮坪环境形成的致密泥岩为盖层,形成了断裂型生储盖组合,具有较好的油气勘探前景。通过对研究区志留-泥盆系沉积相带展布、断层发育特征以及古隆起和古斜坡的综合研究,结合烃源岩排烃及已发现油气特征,认为巴楚-麦盖提地区志留-泥盆系油气成藏规律主要受沉积和构造的共同控制,在二叠纪末,寒武-奥陶系烃源岩排烃期已经形成的单斜构造或斜坡带,被长期活动断层沟通了寒武-奥陶系烃源岩的志留-泥盆系储层分布区易于形成油气藏。区内有利油气成藏区带主要为康2--方1 井之间的断裂带与玉1--BK8--巴5 井之间的斜坡带,可能发育的油气藏类型为岩性油气藏和构造--岩性复合油气藏。     

西藏羌塘盆地的深部结构特征与含油气远景评价

羌塘盆地是目前国内石油勘探的热点地区之一,本文综合研究了羌塘盆地的地球物理、石油地质调查资料及INDEPTH-3深部调查结果,得出:①盆地内烃源层、储集层、盖层及其组合条件很好,局部构造发育,有利于形成和保存油气藏,断裂不会成为致命问题,提出了今后工作的主要目的层上三叠统—中侏罗统组成的中构造层;②对盆地二级、三级构造作了新的划分,否定羌中隆起,提出盆地表层的主要构造方向为北西—南东向,成“三凹三隆”及“一深凹”的地壳结构特征,其中主沉降带内部及其两侧是最有利的找油气远景地带;③本区壳幔之间的相互作用较强,盆地北部火山及热活动多,对油气远景评价有较大影响,而盆地南部沉积厚度大,受深层热影响相对较小,是找油气的更有利地段;④强调查明深部地层物性、油气赋存状况,烃类物质的来源和上下构造符合情况是当务之急,重点是加强点上的调查和评价研究;⑤提出不能轻视伦坡拉陆相古近—新近系盆地找油前景,它可能汇聚有两侧海相地层的油气。     

Numerical modelling of regional faults in land subsidence prediction above gas/oil reservoirs

The stress variation induced by gas/oil production may activate pre‐existing regional faults. This may enhance the expected land subsidence due to the generation of mechanically weak points close to the producing field. A class of elasto‐plastic interface elements (IE), specifically designed to address the mechanical behaviour of faults over a regional scale, is integrated into a finite element (FE) geomechanical model and used to investigate the role exerted by active faults in anthropogenic land subsidence. The importance of regional faults depends on a variety of factors including depth of the depleted reservoir, fault number, orientation and size, geomechanical properties of porous medium, pore pressure drawdown induced by fluid production, etc. With the aid of some representative examples, a useful indication is provided as to where and how fault activation may influence both magnitude and extent of the land subsidence bowl above producing gas/oil reservoirs, pointing to a generally limited impact on the ground surface. The simulation of a real faulted gas reservoir in a complex 3‐D setting shows that the proposed IE can be simply and efficiently incorporated into a FE geomechanical model, thus improving the quality of the stress and displacement prediction. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

南堡凹陷断层对中、上部含油组合油气成藏的控制作用

南堡凹陷断层极其发育,依据断层形成时期、变形特征及形成演化机制,可将南堡凹陷断裂系统划分6种类型(ⅠⅥ).其中,Ⅲ型、Ⅴ型和Ⅵ型断裂系统是中、上部含油组合的主要断层类型,也是重要的控藏断层类型;Ⅲ型断裂系统为晚期形成的断层,主要对中上部含油组合的油气起封闭或调节作用;Ⅴ型和Ⅵ型断裂系统为长期发育的断层,是油气从源岩层向中浅层储层垂向运移的主要通道.晚期活动断层形成的断层相关圈闭是形成油气藏的主要圈闭类型;晚期形成的断裂密集带控制油气藏的分布;断层分段生长形成的古转换带控制了沉积体系及砂体的展布,控制了油气藏的分布;断层对盖层的破坏程度控制了油气聚集的层位;断层封闭性演化控制了断层圈闭中油气的富集程度.     

Sequence Thickness and its Response to Episodic Tectonic Evolution in Paleogene Qikou Sag,Bohaiwan Basin

The sequence stratigraphy framework of Paleogene of Qikou Sag has been built in this paper. The evolution law of episodic subsidence in Qikou Sag has been expounded, with the analysis of the characteristic of sequence thickness, as well as the study of consedimental tectonic activity, subsidence history, paleogeomorphology and the coupling relationship among them. The faults controlling action was the dominant mechanism during rifting stage I , as the depression was the dominant mechanism during rifting stage III, which embodies a process from intense disparity fault depression to integral subsidence. Meanwhile, under the control of regional faulting and later stage depression, subsidence rate centers and paleogeomorphic concave centers are always corresponding to the sequence thickness centers, and the changes of subsidence centers and paleogeomorphology concave centers are consistent with the migration of thickness centers, which presents the restriction, coupling and response among them and clarifies the law that tectonic activity controls the basin fill by means of controlling the subsidence rate and paleogeomorphology from contributing factor angle. On this basis, the dynamic evolution of the composite pattern of structure-subsidence-deposition in the fault controlling actic region during the three rifting stages and their petroleum geological significance has been discussed.     

Tectono-sedimentary events and geodynamic evolution of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins of the Alpine Margin,Gulf of Tunis,north-eastern Tunisia offshore

The structural pattern, tectono-sedimentary framework and geodynamic evolution for Mesozoic and Cenozoic deep structures of the Gulf of Tunis (north-eastern Tunisia) are proposed using petroleum well data and a 2-D seismic interpretation. The structural system of the study area is marked by two sets of faults that control the Mesozoic subsidence and inversions during the Paleogene and Neogene times: (i) a NE-SW striking set associated with folds and faults, which have a reverse component; and (ii) a NW–SE striking set active during the Tertiary extension episodes and delineating grabens and subsiding synclines. In order to better characterize the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Gulf of Tunis structures, seismic data interpretations are compared to stratigraphic and structural data from wells and neighbouring outcrops. The Atlas and external Tell belonged to the southernmost Tethyan margin record a geodynamic evolution including: (i) rifting periods of subsidence and Tethyan oceanic accretions from Triassic until Early Cretaceous: we recognized high subsiding zones (Raja and Carthage domains), less subsiding zones (Gamart domain) and a completely emerged area (Raouad domain); (ii) compressive events during the Cenozoic with relaxation periods of the Oligocene-Aquitanian and Messinian-Early Pliocene. The NW–SE Late Eocene and Tortonian compressive events caused local inversions with sealed and eroded folded structures. During Middle to Late Miocene and Early Pliocene, we have identified depocentre structures corresponding to half-grabens and synclines in the Carthage and Karkouane domains. The north–south contractional events at the end of Early Pliocene and Late Pliocene periods are associated with significant inversion of subsidence and synsedimentary folded structures. Structuring and major tectonic events, recognized in the Gulf of Tunis, are linked to the common geodynamic evolution of the north African and western Mediterranean basins.     

A Neotectonic based geomorphic analysis using remote sensing data to delineate potential areas of hydrocarbon exploration: Cachar area,Assam

TheAssamArakan fold thrust belt has highly deformed folded units of Tertiary sediments bounded by eastward dipping thrust slices with a convexity towards west. In the Tripura-Cachar region, this folded belt is characterized by the occurrence of wide synclines and narrow anticlines that hosts a number of hydrocarbon producing fields. In the Cachar area of Assam, most of these fields occur in the culmination of anticlinal structures. Other wells drilled in analogous structural settings are found to be dry. In this paper a neotectonic based geomorphic analysis is carried out to delineate a fault network and geomorphic highs in Cachar area as expressions of sub-surface structures which had subsequently been validated by available geophysical data. Of these geomorphic highs, those that are in the synclinal areas are believed to represent subtle sub-surface structural highs. Synclinal structures associated with NNE-SSW faults might be considered interesting for hydrocarbon exploration and are subsequently categorized following their degree of confidence for exploration of hydrocarbon. Additionally, a genetic model of the structures in the region is also proposed.     

Retrieving three-dimensional coseismic displacements of the 2008 Gaize,Tibet earthquake from multi-path interferometric phase analysis

In this paper, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data from ENVISAT ASAR ascending, descending and ALOS PALSAR ascending orbits are collected to investigate the coseismic displacements of the Mw 6.4 earthquake occurred in Gaize, Tibet on January 9, 2008 and the Mw 5.9 aftershock on January 16, 2008. Two interferometric phase analysis techniques, i.e., D-InSAR and multi-aperture InSAR, are employed to process the SAR data, with which the displacement measurements along three different line-of-sight (LOS) and three different azimuth directions are retrieved, respectively. Complete three-dimensional (3-D) coseismic displacement fields caused by the earthquake are then resolved by integrating the obtained LOS and azimuth displacement measurements with a weighted least squares adjustment, whose distributions are conformed to the two north-northeast trending northwest-dipping normal faults detected in previous studies. Ground subsidence and uplift are observed in the hanging wall and footwall of the main fault, respectively, and the subsidence reaches its maximum in the hanging wall of the second fault as a superimposed result of the Gaize earthquake and its aftershock. Anti-symmetric horizontal movements are also detected during the seismic events, which move inward in the focal region, but outward at the marginal. The left-lateral motions near the main fault indicate a small striking slip component caused by the Gaize earthquake. Finally, we discuss the potential of applying the derived spatially continuous 3-D displacement fields to determine the high-resolution 3-D strain fields of the Gaize earthquake, which provide important knowledge for assessing the source mechanism.     

中国西部盆地台盆区高角度断层的成因及控油气作用分析

给出了中国西部盆地台盆区普遍发育高角度(倾角 > 45°) 断层的证据, 从断裂形成的力学机制上分析了高角度断层的成因, 认为中国西部盆地台盆区高角度断层的形成主要受压扭性应力场控制, 同时与脆性地层的变形特点有关.断层面静封闭压力由岩石泊桑比、上覆地层容重、断层埋藏深度和倾角、最大和最小主应力以及断层走向与最大主应力方向的夹角等计算, 作为断层开启性评价的一个指标, 断层面静封闭压力的计算表明, 断层的开启性随断层倾角的增加而增加, 同时, 沿断层面运移的油气所受浮力在平行断层面方向上的分力也随着断层倾角的增加而增加, 这就决定了高角度断层更有利于油气的垂向运移.结合西部盆地的具体分析, 认为中国西部盆地区域性高角度断层是沟通深部成藏动力学系统与中上部成藏动力学系统的重要通道, 是中上部系统成藏的关键, 直接决定着中上部系统中油气的分布, 在每一系统内部发育的高角度断层具有使油气在断层断开的最新层位中优先充注成藏的基本规律.这些认识对指导油气勘探具有重要意义, 而且, 这些认识同样可推广到其他存在高角度断层的盆地中.      

塔里木盆地巴楚隆起西段边界断层联接及变形特征

在前人研究的基础上, 利用最新的地震和钻井资料, 分析了巴楚隆起西段与麦盖提斜坡过渡区色力布亚、康塔库木两条边界断层的构造特征.色力布亚和康塔库木断层均表现为基底卷入型逆冲断层, 两条断层之间通过软联接的形式发生相互作用.色力布亚断层沿其走向往南东方向位移量逐渐减小并终止, 康塔库木断层沿其走向往南东方向位移量逐渐增大.构造转换带传递了色力布亚断层和康塔库木断层的位移量, 使巴楚隆起西段边界断层总位移量保持一致.该转换带属于同向倾斜型构造转换带, 现今处于转换带复杂阶段.转换带内发育次级断层和走向裂缝, 有利于形成裂缝型油气藏, 也是油气运移的有利通道, 是巴楚地区未来油气勘探的重要目标.      

高邮凹陷断层控油气作用的多样性

在探讨高邮凹陷断层发育时期和分布特点的基础上,结合油气分布特点,分析了断层在油气成藏中的作用类型,并探讨了其作用机理。依据断层在油气生成、运移、聚集和分布环节中的作用,把断层分为控源断层、供烃断层、改向断层、成圈断层和调整破坏断层。控源断层控制有效烃源岩展布和生烃时期的早晚,高邮凹陷控源断层下降盘为有效烃源岩分布区,而且西部地区早于东部地区生烃;供烃断层控制油气主运移通道的走势,其陡断面和凸断面为高邮凹陷断裂带油气的主运移通道;改向断层影响油气的富集层位和油气富集区的位置,其对高邮凹陷油气分布的影响存在“分散”和“富集”两种效应;成圈断层控制圈闭的类型及分布;调整破坏断层导致圈闭充满程度和原油物性的改变,高邮凹陷调整破坏断层为盐城期和三垛期活动断层。高邮凹陷断层的多期性和多样性导致断层体系中各断层封闭性在时空上的差异性和多变性,从而形成对油气控制的多面性和复杂性。